Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction

Bridges hold an imperative role in the transportation network and infrastructure. Continuous monitoring of their condition is crucial for the efficient operation of transportation facilities. Conventional bridge monitoring has relied on direct sensor instrumentation on the bridge to obtain the bridge response. Indirect bridge health monitoring (iBHM) leverages the moving traffic over the specific bridge of interest. The benefit of iBHM lies in the fact that bridge instrumentation is no longer required since the moving vehicle is instrumented with sensors. The collected data can be used to identify the dynamic characteristics of the bridge. Additionally, the method can be used to detect damage using the information of the vehicle bridge interaction. This paper systematically reviews the recent research progress in iBHM, and the review is organized based on four main groups, namely single test vehicles, tractor-trailer vehicles, crowdsourced/smartphone monitoring, and contact point (CP) response. The primary classification is further divided according to the nature of the investigation, which includes theoretical and numerical investigations, laboratory tests, and full-scale validations. After a concise and systematic review, the existing challenges and future recommendations are outlined. It is anticipated that this review will provide valuable guidance for researchers and practitioners of bridge engineering to understand better the evolution, development, and future trends of iBHM.

Rapid urbanization and population growth worldwide has stimulated the requirement of fast and efficient construction techniques. An emerging trend in the construction industry focuses on prefabricated volumetric modular construction (PVMC), wherein individual room size prefabricated modules are manufactured off-site and transported to the site for assemblage using joint connections. This paper provides a comprehensive review on prefabricated modular structural systems, general concepts, joint connections for steel and concrete modules, and their structural behavior. Further, the impediments in current PVMC systems are outlined and technical challenges that restrict the widespread acceptance of PVMC systems are discussed. PVMC is advantageous over conventional construction with regard to construction efficiency, material optimization, speed, safety, and quality control, along with reduced environmental impact. However, application of PVMC in construction industry is very limited due to lack of sufficient understanding on joint connections, seismic behavior, and design methods. It is inferred that reasonable research has been carried out to study the behavior of connection systems at the local level, while research on global seismic performance of prefabricated modular buildings is scarce, which calls for extensive experimental investigations on full-scale modular buildings subjected to lateral loading.

This study investigates the distortional buckling strength of a partially closed cold-formed steel (CFS) channel section with intermediate web stiffeners and outward lips under axial compression. Generally, a closed CFS cross section has higher torsional resistance when compared to an open cross section. However, an open cross section is more popular in the construction industry. Despite the popularity of CFS open sections, distortional buckling can reduce the load-carrying capacity of such open cross sections. To improve the distortional buckling strength of the proposed selected section, a simple spacer plate is added externally to the channel section in the transverse direction. Initially, a numerical model is developed using the finite element software ANSYS, which is then validated against the experimental results available in the literature. A detailed parametric study was also conducted to investigate the influence of thickness, depth, and spacing of spacer plates on the distortional buckling strength of stiffened CFS channel sections. From the results of the parametric study, it was found that the presence of spacer plates can increase the axial capacity of stiffened CFS channel sections by as much as 32%. Finite element results were compared with the design strengths calculated in accordance with the direct strength method (DSM).

Tuned mass dampers (TMDs) are increasingly being used to reduce the motion of tall buildings during common wind events. Despite TMDs receiving extensive theoretical research for many decades, dissemination of the practical aspects of designing and installing these devices is severely lacking. Since they are relatively new to the high-rise construction industry, TMD installations may be viewed by design and construction teams as having considerable risk. This paper describes the process of implementing a TMD in a tall building to demystify the devices for practicing structural engineers, architects, general contractors, and owners. It is hoped that this demystification will help these parties understand and control the real and perceived risks associated with TMD implementations. Since prescriptive, code-based procedures are unsuitable for TMD design, a performance-based design approach must be used to ensure the TMD attains specified performance objectives. The TMD implementation process is described in four phases: concept design, detailed design, fabrication and installation, and tuning and commissioning. This paper does not present new theoretical or experimental research but instead provides a broad, practical overview of real-world TMD installations for practitioners. The content of this paper has been obtained from the design and installation of dozens of TMDs in tall buildings around the world.

Construction is one of the most hazardous and stressful occupations throughout the world. The dynamic, complex, and high-risk nature of construction operations places significant burden on the construction workforce. This significant burden of construction operations can compromise the health and well-being of the construction workforce. The objective of the present study is to identify leading indicators of the health and well-being of the construction workforce. To achieve the study objective, a survey questionnaire was developed and distributed to construction experts in the United States. After collecting and analyzing the responses, it was found that there are six leading indicators of the health and well-being of the construction workforce: (1) toolbox talks, (2) company social events, (3) safety, health care, and wellness program, (4) employee assistance program (EAP), (5) employee benefits and perks, and (6) annual medical checkups. Identifying these indicators helps construction organizations interested in supporting employee career advancement assess and improve the health and well-being of the workforce. The findings of the study make a practical contribution to the body of knowledge on construction health and safety and enables the practitioner community to utilize the identified indicators for managing and improving construction employee health and well-being.

This paper aims to compare and analyze construction practitioners’ perceptions concerning the influence of project delivery methods (PDMs) and procurement methods (PMs) on various project outcomes, including team chemistry, construction quality, construction productivity, change orders, and overall project success. Using a convenience sampling survey, the research team received 94 responses from industry practitioners. Findings indicated that industry practitioners consider both PDM and PM to contribute significantly to overall construction success, indicating the need for further research regarding the interplay relationship between them. Few studies have examined the combined effects of PDMs and PMs, instead opting to keep one of the variables constant. The findings suggest that the industry lacks precise knowledge of contributions and limitations of the various PDMs and PMs, which warrants further research and highlights the need to develop and disseminate educational materials on the topic.

Abstract

Highly-skewed steel I-girder bridges are commonly used across the US, especially in congested areas, despite complications in their analysis and design. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) LRFD Bridge Design Specification provides suggestions for design values of flange lateral bending stress in addition to line girder analysis when bridge skew exceeds 20° for certain cross-frame layouts. For bridges with skew exceeding 60°, a higher level of analysis is often required, with cross-frames considered primary members in design. Neither the magnitude of additional lateral stress nor the associated skew limits are particularly well understood, so more study is needed to refine and support this analysis and design approach. In addition to short-term response and load distribution, long-term bridge behavior for thermally induced stresses and deformations also needs to be more thoroughly studied. In support of an ongoing research initiative in Illinois, an agency survey was formulated and distributed across the US to understand practices used and challenges faced by state transportation agencies when designing and constructing skewed steel I-girder bridges. Findings from the responses of 23 state agencies illuminate issues, concerns, and current practice related to design, construction, and service life of those bridges. The agency survey informed selection of two bridges in Champaign, Illinois, for field monitoring, in order to provide new understanding of skew effects on bridge superstructure behavior. Three-dimensional finite-element analysis was conducted to guide field instrumentation planning, and initial measurements from the monitored bridges under traffic load confirmed good predictions compared to the planning-stage numerical study.

Practical Applications

This paper presents the initial stages of a long-term project that employs field monitoring and three-dimensional finite-element analysis of skewed steel I-girder bridges. Findings from a survey of state transportation agencies describe issues, concerns, and current practice related to design, construction, and service life of these bridges, which can be of interest to practicing engineers and contractors. This paper illustrates the integration of data from current practice and targeted numerical simulations to establish a rigorous basis for planning a bridge superstructure field monitoring campaign. The information and experiences summarized can be helpful to both practicing engineers and researchers.

Building information modeling (BIM) is one of the most promising new technological developments that can be used to facilitate design and construction automation. Prior BIM research has primarily focused on permanent building components; temporary structures such as scaffolding and concrete formwork have received little attention. The design and planning of concrete formwork systems, however, would substantially benefit from the capabilities of BIM. Formwork design is repetitive and can be very time-consuming due to the need to analyze multiple parameters of individual permanent components, the latest formwork design guidelines, methods, and procedures, and the available materials. In this study, a BIM-based tool is developed and proposed to assist designers and builders in planning, designing, and generating concrete formwork design models for planning purposes. By integrating the design procedures recommended by the American Concrete Institute (ACI), the streamlining tool automates the design and modeling process for timber concrete formwork through an application programming interface (API) in Revit. The workability of the proposed tool was demonstrated through a case study. The study also employed the survey method to investigate the effectiveness of the proposed tool and its potential for improving worker safety and health from the perspectives of formwork professionals. Using the tool, form designers and planners will be able to determine the most applicable formwork design based on the permanent facility structure along with the availability of construction materials, site conditions present, and worker safety and health considerations. The study also provides contractors with a new tool for planning concrete operations and expands the scope of BIM design.

Due to the dynamic and recurring nature of construction operations, employee turnover rates remain relatively high. This high employee turnover rate presents challenges to the industry, the economy, and society as a whole. In addition, this high turnover rate leads to a significant shortage of skilled laborers given the reduced interest of new generations in construction. To overcome these challenges, it is paramount to initiate a systematic process, based on research and feedback from industry experts, to attract and develop skilled employees and then implement strategies to nurture and retain the attracted employees. A systematic process would increase workforce sustainability, a measure of the extent to which a workforce is nurtured and retained. The goal of this study was twofold: (1) to identify potential strategies to assess and improve workforce development and sustainability in construction, and (2) to statistically validate the identified strategies using feedback from field personnel in the construction industry. A survey process that collected data from a panel of expert and field personnel was carried out to achieve the goals of the study. The research findings led to the identification of multiple strategies contributing to workforce development and sustainability in construction; the identified strategies fell into seven workforce sustainability attributes, namely: nurturing, diversity, equity, health and well-being, connectivity, value, and maturity. This study makes a significant contribution to construction practice by providing a list of strategies that construction organizations can utilize to develop and sustain a skilled, motivated, and productive workforce.

This paper presents a framework for the structural design of single-story industrial steel portal frames. The structural mechanical utilization, stability, and serviceability design requirements employing a parametric structural tridimensional computational model are included. The model parameterization consists of adopting the column, rafter, purlins, and cladding span lengths as parameters, as well as the cross-section sizes of these members, the latter in accordance with the standard commercial cross section’s tables. The main outcome is the possibility to scan the range of parameters and store the structural performance ratios, generating a solution space for this structural system. This space of valid solutions attending structural code requirements defines a set of valid structural system topological configuration and dimensions, making it possible to obtain relationships between the parameters and material consumption rate. Concave-hull 2D plots are used to visualize the solution space and identify the best choice of parameters in the design process. It is shown that the solution space generation and the concave-hull 2D plots are powerful design aids that help to identify the best combination of structural system topological dimensions and cross-section types and dimensions.

Various delivery methods are used in the water industry for delivering treatment plant projects, which include the traditional design-bid-build (DBB) method as well as alternative project delivery methods (APDM), such as construction manager at risk (CMAR) and design-build (DB). Research has shown that APDM may improve water infrastructure project delivery performance when compared to DBB. However, utilizing an APDM does not guarantee a project’s successful delivery; other project variables also influence project delivery performance. The objective of this study is to develop exploratory mathematical models to investigate the impact of project-specific delivery factors and attributes on a water project’s success. The authors assess unit cost performance, which is a measure of a water treatment plant’s capacity in million gallons per day, over a project’s total cost. This study consisted of holding an industry expert workshop to review and develop a data collection questionnaire. Information on a total of 15 water treatment plant projects delivered in the US was collected and used to develop multiple linear regression models that explored project-specific key factors and attributes that impact unit cost performance. Results of the regression models revealed four critical variables: (1) use of GMP; (2) project team experience; (3) level of design completed before constructor engagement; and (4) project complexity, to have a statistically significant impact on the unit cost performance of water projects. The findings and contributions of this study can aid water stakeholders in understanding the unit cost performance impact of key project variables on their projects and support them in their project delivery method decisions.

Base connections join the column to the foundation, thereby providing a superstructure fixation to the foundation, and play a major role in the steel structure’s ductile behavior. Seismic damage to these connections can dramatically increase the cost of restoration and the risk of destruction. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of three advanced hybrid models, which combine the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm, Runge–Kutta optimizer (RUN), and sparrow search algorithm (SSA) with an artificial neural network (ANN), to recognize the failure modes of the steel-column base plate (SCBP) connection. Data from prior experiments were used as inputs to the models. A comparison was performed between the results of the proposed models (PSO-ANN, RUN-ANN, and SSA-ANN) and the previous studies that utilized different machine learning algorithms, such as support vector machine and naive Bayes, for the failure mode identification of the SCBP connections. Examination of all models showed that the hybrids RUN-ANN, PSO-ANN, SSA-ANN, and decision tree perform better than the others models and can predict the failure mode with an accuracy of 95%, 92%, 90%, and 91%, respectively. The SHapley Additive exPlanation methodology is also used in this study to demonstrate the importance and contribution of the components that influence SCBP connections failure mechanism identification.

In recent years, Japan has assisted in technique and capacity development for bridge maintenance and management in developing countries worldwide. Such projects are aimed at formulating maintenance and management plans, which include bridge inspection and repair techniques. However, because the current conditions of the bridges to be managed are not well understood, most developing countries have no effective data available for formulating bridge maintenance and management plans. To this end, the authors introduce a bridge database system that uses smartphones to collect bridge inventory data and implements a brief bridge inspection to help formulate bridge maintenance and management plans as a part of technical-assistance projects supported by the Japan International Cooperation Agency in Kenya, Madagascar, and Tajikistan. Furthermore, a bridge database system that includes bridge inventory and inspection records can be established automatically during data collection and inspection work without any additional effort. This system is expected to contribute toward establishing a bridge database system in countries that have no inventory data or inspection records.

Pounding between adjacent buildings subjected to ground motion excitation is one of the most dangerous phenomena for building safety. In this paper, three novel configurations are proposed (two of them are uncoupled, and one of them is coupled), and two different passive devices are used, namely, tuned mass damper inerter (TMDI) and tuned inerter damper (TID). In addition, the proposed configurations are investigated for pounding mitigation. To determine the devices’ optimum parameters (mass, inertance, stiffness, and damping), a particle swarm optimization algorithm is used. The objective function is set to minimize the peak of the frequency response functions of interstory drift. The proposed configurations are compared with the best existing configuration in the literature. A large set of ground motion records is used to illustrate the efficiency of the proposed configurations. Based on the results, it is found that the proposed uncoupled configurations by using TMDIs or TIDs perform better than the existing configuration in the literature.

This study proposed an analytical method to predict the hysteresis behavior of hybrid rocking walls (HRWs) in the two limit states of decompression and geometric nonlinearity. The flag-shaped curve of a HRW under a given cyclic load was described using the parameters of initial stiffness, post-yield stiffness, and the energy dissipated by the wall energy dissipaters. In this method, the hysteresis loops of the wall were determined assuming no tendon yielding and concrete crushing at the wall toes. The results of the proposed analytical method were validated via experiments on two HRWs under cyclic loads and previously validated finite element models. Comparing the results of the analytical method with those of the tests and numerical models showed that the proposed method can provide acceptable predictions for the yield point, ultimate point, initial and post-yield stiffnesses, energy dissipation level in each loading cycle, as well as the hysteresis behavior of hybrid walls. This showed the efficiency and accuracy of the proposed analytical method. Moreover, despite the simplifying assumptions, the good agreement between the analytical approach and experimental hysteresis loops indicated that the role of plastic deformation in energy dissipation at the bottom of HRWs is negligible.

A cellular beam is a widened I-profile section with circular web openings. This type of perforated-web beam has been used immensely throughout the world during the last two decades. Lateral torsional buckling is one of the steel beam’s limit state designs. This study aims to investigate the behavior of cellular beams against lateral torsional buckling. A validated numerical model was employed in a sort of parametric study. The examined parameters are applied load configurations and the geometrical ratios of flange width-to-thickness, web height-to-thickness, openings’ spacing-to-diameter, beam’s span-to-depth, and opening’s diameter to beam-depth. Based on the results of the parametric study, a lower-bound design formula for predicting the lateral torsional buckling moment resistance of simply supported cellular beams was proposed. The suggested design formula can predict, with an acceptable degree of accuracy, the lateral torsional bending strength of simply supported cellular beams being subjected to various types of destabilizing loads.

Maintenance operations embrace all parts of the building, such as structural and architectural parts, mechanical and electrical installations, and how they are serviced, including the most detailed to the most sensitive components in the building. This research uses the Delphi method and prepares a questionnaire with the construction industry experts’ opinions to determine the main criteria. The purpose of this article is to identify and prioritize the effective indicators for the building maintenance system and determine the most appropriate strategy for this system using multicriteria decision making methods. The proposed method first calculates the weight of the indicators and then prioritizes the indicators based on fuzzy and nonfuzzy multicriteria decision-making methods. Finally, the final rankings of the indices were calculated using the mean rank and final ranking methods. According to the review of all methods, it was found that safety, health and accessibility indices are the first to third priorities, respectively. Finally, by examining the results obtained from a case study (Karaj City, Iran) and examining the experts’ opinions, it was found that the obtained results are different and the corrective maintenance (CM) and breakdown maintenance (BM) strategies are the most appropriate.

The present paper shows the results of nonlinear finite-element analysis (FEA) of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) and textile-reinforced mortar (TRM) confined reinforced concrete (RC) wall-like columns under concentric and eccentric axial loads. The FEA column models were validated with an experimental study in the literature. A parametric study was performed on the validated models to examine the effectiveness of FRP versus TRM considering various columns’ cross section aspect ratios, number of layers, and eccentricities. In addition, interaction diagrams were constructed for the control and strengthened columns. Good agreement was achieved between the experimental and validated FEA results. The parametric study results showed that, as compared to TRM, FRP jackets were more effective in terms of axial strength improvement. This effectiveness was less pronounced in columns with higher aspect ratios. Furthermore, the effectiveness of both systems was distinct when three layers were applied with 45% and 39% enhancements in the axial strength as compared to the control model, respectively. Furthermore, the axial strength of all columns reduced with higher eccentricity values. As the eccentricity increased, the axial capacity of the models strengthened with FRP converged with the control ones. In general, the TRM-confined model’s interaction diagram was superior to that of its FRP-confined counterparts.

In the US, hundreds of people lose their lives each year, and many more are injured, in street and highway maintenance and construction work zones. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) mandates the use of temporary traffic control to address overall safety performance in roadway construction and maintenance projects. However, statistics reveal the need to further identify and investigate the main contributing factors to occupational incidents within work zones. This study reviewed work zone fatal incident investigation reports carried out by the Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Program. The review categorized the reports based on incident nature into internal-source incidents and vehicle intrusion incidents. Accordingly, this study sheds light on the safety of construction workers within road work zones. Specifically, the study focused on temporary traffic control plans and internal traffic control plans (ITCPs). This study highlights the critical contribution of ITCPs to internal-source incidents. Currently, there is no requirement to create and implement an ITCP. As a result, a justification for OSHA’s use of the general-duty clause is suggested to enforce the utilization of ITCPs in roadway work zones. In addition, recommendations to improve overall FACE investigation efficiency and temporary traffic control layout are suggested. This study will aid construction firms and public agencies in improving the overall safety of roadway work zones to reduce occupational fatal and nonfatal injuries.

The need for the flexible near-surface-mounted carbon fiber–reinforced polymer (NSM-CFRP) material has recently been used as a strengthening material for structures. Therefore, this experimental work and finite element analysis studies were carried out to assess the behavior of confined rectangular columns using NSM-CFRP rope. Nine RC columns with three slenderness ratios (17.78, 24.44, and 28.89) including the spacing between ropes were investigated under concentric compression load. The obtained results revealed that the NSM-CFRP significantly contributed to the load capacity of RC columns. Furthermore, the role of the spacing between ropes in improving the load capacity of confined rectangular RC columns was observed. The load capacity increased by decreasing the spacing from 200 to 100 mm between ropes by 133.1%–149.7%. The improvement in the load capacity of columns when the slenderness ratio decreases were recorded. The percentage of load capacity was approximately 124.5%–139.7% and 112.3%–133.1% when using slenderness ratios of 24.44 and 28.89, respectively. The failure mode for all strengthened specimens was dominated by spalling and crushing of concrete followed by NSM-CFRP rope rupture. A numerical model was developed using ABAQUS software for NSM-CFRP rope–confined columns accounting for material nonlinearities. The results showed a good agreement between the experimental work and numerical model results.

Maturity models are credited with raising project management awareness, but no conclusive evidence supports their use as a tool for performance enhancement in construction project settings. The present study thus examined the influence of time, cost, and quality management maturity on performance indices of building construction projects in Myanmar. The study further assessed how maturity in time, cost, and quality varied between public and private construction organizations. Four building construction projects, i.e., two operated by private construction organizations and two operated by public construction organizations in Myanmar, have been chosen for the data collection. The project manager and an individual from the upper management of each project were interviewed in three stages to obtain the maturity level. The performance indices of each project were evaluated quantitatively. The study’s findings revealed a positive relationship between project management maturity and project performance. Specifically, a higher time management maturity contributed to greater time performance, and elevated cost management maturity projected higher cost performance. Contrary to the expectations, the study could not find a significant relationship between quality management maturity and quality performance. The results further revealed that the average time management maturity of public construction organizations was significantly higher. Still, the average cost and quality management maturity were considerably lower than that of private construction organizations. The construction organizations aiming to enhance the project performance should focus on reaching a higher maturity in time and cost management knowledge areas.

Dampers can be installed inside buildings to mitigate vibration and lateral displacement. Recently, a new type of tuned liquid wall damper (TLWD) was proposed, in which a reinforced concrete wall panel can contain various vertical openings, allowing internal water to flow to provide the damping effect. Generally, larger amounts of water lead to a better damping effect. However, this requires a larger opening area in the wall, which will reduce the strength of the wall. Therefore, a multiobjective optimization method, which considers both the strength and damping effects, was developed to accommodate the two conflicting design objectives in this work. The method starts with a local task (i.e., strength and damping). Once the individual objective is optimized, a global task accounts for all parameters. The optimal result is obtained by selecting the best solution from the global task. This approach achieves the optimal design of the TLWD system considering a wide range of size and number of the openings. It was concluded that, for optimal TLWD configuration, the panel has minor strength reduction while providing satisfactory damping capability for hazard mitigation. The method presented in this study can be used to design other types of structures with conflicting design objectives.

This study developed a noncontact deflection monitoring technique using terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) and images for faster, safer, and efficient 2D/3D bridge deflection measurements. The technique was applied to assess the serviceability performance of two timber trestle railroad bridges located in Florida and validated based on bridge deflections from deflectometers. A key challenge includes extracting control points that are visible both in images and TLS data due to different modalities of the data. Hence, this study presents a method of extracting linear features from both images and TLS data. The camera pose was derived from images and TLS data by using a linear feature-based registration algorithm. The deformations in the structure were then detected by measuring the points of interest for different loads. There are several unique contributions of the study. First, there is no requirement for the use of targets which improves the safety of bridge engineers. Second, it is a relatively cost-effective technique for obtaining bridge deflections due to moving train loads, as the use of a laser scanner as part of the noncontact technique is only once in a lifetime for a given bridge. Alternatively, total stations can also be used to capture linear features. Finally, this technique produced accurate deflection measurements using a linear feature-based registration technique. This study found that the noncontact deflection monitoring technique agrees well with actual deformations observed from deflectometers.

Cracking in concrete structures is a ubiquitous problem and affects the serviceability of such structures. In many cases, it is imperative to properly measure and monitor a crack’s size to identify locations for repair and rehabilitation. This paper describes two field studies that used digital image processing to measure the width of cracks in concrete structures. The first field study compared crack measurements from digital image processing, a handheld microscope, and a crack gauge card. In the second field study, digital image processing was used to measure end region cracks in precast pretensioned concrete girders. Guidance is provided for engineers who wish to use digital image processing in field studies. Conditions where digital image processing may lead to errors are identified, and limitations of the methods are discussed. In general, the studies demonstrate that image processing methods can efficiently measure the size of cracks in concrete structures in field settings and that image-based measurements are comparable to microscope measurements.

The Greater Jakarta Light Rail Transit Project (LRT Jabodebek) is an infrastructure project that utilizes lead rubber bearings (LRBs) to reduce seismic demand on structures. This seismically isolated system shall provide operational performance levels under design earthquakes. Nonlinear time-history analysis was used to evaluate the structural performance. Five pairs of scaled ground motions were used as the input motions for the time-history analysis. The ability of the lead rubber bearing to isolate the structures and dissipate earthquake energy will determine its effectiveness in achieving the targeted structural performance level. From this exercise, the targeted performance was achieved. In the last part of the paper, the construction documentation of the elevated structures is presented.

Two interaction diagrams for proportioning rigid rectangular or wall footings on soil or rock are presented in this technical note. A new alternative approach to an old problem, based on simplicity and versatility. The content is derived from standard bridge specifications. It covers bearing resistance at the strength limit state of wall foundations on soil and rock, while the loading pattern that has been adopted allows checking against uplift. A unique feature of the proposed design methodology is that the interaction diagrams are derived in a dimensionless form and thus any rectangular shallow foundation on any soil classification can be proportioned with the aid of a single plot.