Space 2002 and Robotics 2002

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the names given to a very broad group of disciplines that focus on the understanding of processes and mechanics at the nanoscale, that is, at the atomic and molecular scale. The essence of the efforts focus on the development of the ability to work at these scales, with applications to electronics and materials at the frontier. While the first applications are at the nanoscale, with products such as quantum computing and nanocircuits, exciting possibilities exist when the engineering and science of nanotechnology allow the creation of structures, such as space structures, that are made of nano materials. Such materials will be much stronger and lighter than current materials. This, of course, will reduce the cost of placing an object in orbit by several orders of magnitude. The benefit to spaceflight is obvious. The importance of this area of research and development is exemplified by the National Nanotechnology Initiative at NSF: http://www.nsf.gov/search97cgi/vtopic. In this paper, an overview will be provided on current thinking in nanoscience and nanotechnology with a glimpse at some of the exciting prospects. Some of these are based on discussions with my colleagues Professors A Cuitiño, G Elliott and A Norris.

It may seem utterly impossible to build and operate a structure that continuously lifts large payloads from the ground to GEO, but that is what is conceptually explored here in some detail, along with the applications that become possible thereby and its benefits to civilization. As envisioned here, such a lifting structure would approximately take the shape of an orbital transfer trajectory ellipse extending from the ground, encircling the planet to extend up to GEO at its upper reach. The entire structure being a kind of electric motor, within its stationary stator synchronously travel an immense quantity of armature segments sliding along magnetic levitation tracks on its underside. The armature mass stream segments continuously circle around the planet within the maglev tracks on the underside of the orbital transfer trajectory-shaped stator structure, with a velocity at all points faster than that for an actual orbital transfer trajectory. The velocity component that is in excess of actual orbital transfer trajectory velocity becomes expressed as centrifugal force against the underside of the stator structure, which is in opposition to the force of gravity, thus supporting weight. For ease of thinking, assume that the armature segments move at twice orbital transfer velocity. Then they would be able to exactly press outward, upward relative to the Earth, with a centrifugal force balancing the weight of a mass equal to the aggregate mass of the armature mass stream, supporting a combined load of stator structure and live load being lifted to and from GEO from the ground. The armature segments have permanent magnets which inductively drag upward, lifting vehicles to GEO. Modulating inductive drag against the armature mass streams servo positions the overall structure in response to live loads and to wind loads in the atmospheric portion. The stator structure encloses a hard vacuum environment for the 20 km/sec armature mass streams in the atmospheric portions of the transportation structure. Electrical energy is input at the ground terminal, electromagnetically accelerating the armature mass streams to make up for losses sustained in its travel around the structure, replacing the energy lost due to maglev track losses, servo positioning losses, and energy consumed by lifting payload up to orbit. Initially it lifts materials for building Solar Power Satellites which beam electrical power back down to power the transportation structure and to supply electricity to the world; then lifting toxic waste total recycling plants to GEO.

In this study, we analyze the power storage systems needed for operational tests of a Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) on the International Space Station (ISS). Two tests are considered: a short-term test of VASIMR operation in a space environment and long term drag compensation operation. Energy storage possibilities examined include nickel hydrogen, nickel cadmium, and lithium-ion batteries and flywheels. For the near-term planned tests, all approaches are technically feasible with Ni-Cd batteries likely least expensive. For use in drag compensation, ten-year operation is beyond the capability of any battery system without battery replacement. For this long-term multi-cycle application the flywheel energy storage costs can be significantly lower.

A technique for deforming a flexible wing to achieve a specified roll rate within a specified time at different Mach Numbers is examined. Rather than using an aileron system for roll, antisymmetric elastic twist and camber is determined to achieve the required rolling moment for a specified roll rate. The elastic twist and camber is achieved by providing a system of actuating elements distributed within the internal substructure of the wing to provide control forces. The modal approach is used to develop the dynamic equilibrium equations which culminates in the steady roll maneuver of a wing subjected to aerodynamic loads and the actuating forces. The distribution of actuating forces to achieve the specified steady flexible roll rate within a specified time was determined by using Independent Modal-Space Control (IMSC) design approach. Here, a full-scale realistic wing is considered for the assessment of the strain energy required to produce the antisymmetric twist and camber deformation to achieve the specified roll performance.

Developing membrane structures for space-based applications is an effort to reduce launch mass and stowed volume. Accurate modeling the shape after deployment is very important to the high-precision inflatable structures for space applications. This paper presents a numerical study of the inflation of an initially plane membrane with circular boundary. The simulations were conducted using the nonlinear FEM code ABAQUS. Two types of boundary conditions are imposed. The conditions are either prescribed boundary movement during the inflation or prescribed spring constant for the springs that are attached to the rim of the membrane. Zero tensile stress is considered as the condition on the verge of forming wrinkles. When compression zone appears, winkles are formed. Numerical results show that there is a limited amount of edge movement before the forming of wrinkles.

A study to determine the possibilities of melting the ice and snow at Mars polar regions to create an atmosphere for human habituation. Utilizing silver plated Parabolic Reflectors (Kites) to re-direct (concentrate) the sun's energy to create warmth at the Mars north pole to melt the snow and ice for Earth-like features.

The analysis of failure time data has grown in sophistication over the last fifty years with advances in theory and computation. Early methods, the mathematics of demographic "Life Tables," have serious limitations when applied to subjects where the event of interest, e.g. failure time of a robot in space, does not occur and sample sizes are small. Recent advances in statistical theory have developed related techniques collectively called "Survival Analysis," which overcome the main problems of older methods. In Survival Analysis there may be "censored" observations, where failure never occurs or observations are lost before failing. The median value of a set of observations is used as the primary statistic, not the mean or average statistic. Extensions of Survival Analysis allow for regression-like tools for multi-variate analysis. Further challenges will involve the mixing of real data from space and simulation data from Earth to improve estimation.

Geckos can walk straight up walls and across ceilings. Dr. Kellar Autumn and colleagues have discovered their secret: gecko feet have hundreds of thousands of hair-like "setae" with hundreds of submicroscopic pads ("spatulae") at each seta tip, which appear to cling by van der Waals forces to almost any surface. Unlike suction or traditional adhesives, this adhesion works under conditions of vacuum and particulate contamination, making it potentially ideal for use on the Moon and Mars. It is also remarkably strong (10 N per 100 mm² in vivo), yet quickly and easily released. Lavatube caves, on any world, can be one of the most extreme terrains in which to operate. The caves consist of raw, unweathered lava. Cave floors covered with random piles of large boulder "breakdown" make exploration difficult for humans or robots. The ability to traverse lavatube walls and ceilings would make such exploration much easier; this could be accomplished by using gecko-derived biomimetic technology. "Gecko-Tech" can greatly enhance efficiency and effectiveness of cave exploration and development. These technologies can also find many other uses outside of lavatubes. Gecko-footed robots could climb to the lavatube roof and emplace permanent anchors for suspension of utilities, transportation, or even entire lunar bases. Tethers tipped with gecko-tech pads can extend the reach of robots and humans. Humans wearing a flexible skin-tight spacesuit with gecko-tech pads could climb over large rocks on lavatube floors, or up lava walls. Such a garment would be useful to climb the red cliffs of Mars or to perform maintenance work on slippery habitats. Gecko-tech will increase the capabilities of emergency and rescue operations. It will enable new forms of sport and recreation. Gecko-tech enhancements of human and robot mobility expand the range over which humans and robots can work, becoming an effective productivity multiplier.

The ability to create lightweight mirrors that can maintain surface accuracy is a major technical challenge for future space telescopes. This is compounded by the requirements for mirrors to have adequate stiffness to weight ratio to mitigate vibration and maintain surface figure going from earth to zero gravity. Composites (graphite/epoxy) are not used as mirror facesheet, but rather as the backup structure to most of the large space mirrors currently being developed. Process induced errors and surface errors due to gravity sag (zero gravity in space) makes it impossible to correct the surface of thin facesheets by conventional point actuators Shape Memory Alloys can make whole surface actuation possible due to their controllable heat induced shrinkage capability. Embedded SMA wires were used to actuate a composite beam, and the movement induced by actuation was monitored with the ‘Geometric Moire' method. An analytical study was conducted to investigate the mechanics of vibration of thin-shell ‘Membrane' mirrors to allow designers to quickly estimate the first fundamental mode as a function of mirror geometry and material.

This paper will give a summary of the basics of a space elevator. There are several space elevator concepts that are being examined but each must work within the same physics framework and deal with the same problems. We will examine the basic physics, and the constraints that drive the design and operation of a space elevator. Topics will include the cable material, length, counterweight and taper, system power, and operational hazards such as low-Earth objects, terrestrial weather, atomic oxygen damage, radiation damage, and oscillations. The other common component of every space elevator concept is the utility of the system. We will examine the possible applications of a space elevator and how it could affect space development.

The NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) has been supporting a space elevator development program to investigate the initial design, deployment and operations scenario. The work has produced a plan for the construction and operation of a small (20 ton capacity) space elevator within the next couple decades. The elevator cable is composed of a carbon nanotube composite extending 100,000 km from an ocean-going anchor station at Earth to beyond geosynchronous altitude and can be ascended by climbers using a laser power beaming system and an electric motor. All the foreseeable operational hazards have been examined and solutions proposed. This paper will present the Phase I results along with the current Phase II progress. We will cover the design, deployment and operations scenario as well as presenting the recent laboratory tests on cable segments and system simulations.

This paper explains a concept for a high payload capacity tether. This tether is not a traditional tether in that it does not generate thrust from electromagnetic fields, but rather transfers momentum from one object to another. It does this in a manner and to an extent not previously proposed.

The Virtual Beanstalk Project is an internet-based design workshop and feasibility study for a near space beanstalk which is supported by hydrogen balloons attached to a near space station floating at 20 kilometers above sea level. All designs are done by volunteers and therefore the project has not appreciably moved forward. This beanstalk concept entails the use of a lightweight, high strength Spectra polyurethane tether which anchors the high altitude research platform to the ground. Access to the platform is via solar electric elevators which climb the tether by using an electric winch. The near space platform could offer a research platform for near earth phenomena, life support studies in near space conditions, a telecommunications station or a national security radar station. Operating expenses could be offset by revenue from adventure tourism. A horizontal launch rail for rockets is planned. Project website is at: http://members.aol.com/beanstalkr/project/

The Space Elevator (SE) is not just another way to access space. It is a shift in the concept of space travel as large as the shift from dirigibles to the 747. To accomplish this the SE must be economically viable, an enterprise that is able to pay its way. We will show that through proper management and the application of new concepts such as "fractional load packing" (FLP) the SE is not only economically viable, more than able to repay its construction costs, but as a system it can save 99.9% of current space access costs, making it comparable to other forms of commercial transportation.

On the Moon, unique situations exist for observing the infrared parts of the spectrum because of the lack of an atmosphere. In the Polar areas this situation is extremely good because of the Permanently shadowed areas which belong to the coldest places (50K) in our solar system. This means that the surrounding infrared background radiation which disturbs the measurements is very low. The South Pole offers the best location to build such an observatory. From research done a few years ago by several sources with data of the Clementine mission it appears that a unique combination exists at the South Pole. Permanent Shadowed areas located within a few kilometers of a small area that is almost permanently lit by the sun, often referred to as "peak of eternal light" (PEL). By placing a communication relay on one of the Lunar Mountains it is also possible to have direct communications with this PEL which can not be seen directly from Earth. This combination results in the location choice for the placement and construction of the Lunar South Pole Infrared Telescope in Shackleton Crater together with a communication relay station in the form of a lander at Malapert Mountain and another communication relay and energy supply station in the form of a lander at the Peak of Eternal Light. In this paper a description will be given of the design of the telescope and the scenario that was chosen to construct this telescope. The Location and type of mission requires a design that is scenario and environment driven. The Scenario determines way of construction (on earth, in orbit, on moon),timeline and maximum masses, sizes and volume of the payloads to be delivered to the lunar surface. The location on the Moon means that no infrastructure or resources are available without processing except for the lunar regolith itself. The environment determines the choices of materials and details (dust, ground situation) The local terrain determines communication, energy-supply, light, resources, location, foundation and the way of construction. It appears that it is possible to built a telescope with the same capabilities as the Next Generation Space Telescope on the Lunar South Pole except for the sky coverage that will be limited by the location and orientation. The telescope has a diameter of 8 meters and is an altitude-azimuth design. The bearings will be made of superconducting magnets that use fluxpinning to stabilise themselves while at the same time they are very energy-efficient. The foundation will be put together and dug in-situ using robots and telepresence in a virtual reality environment and using local laser rangefinders. If all goes well the telescope is expected to have settlements no larger than 0,03 mm during operation. When the telescope is built, an infrastructure has been created for energy supply and relaying communications. The total mission is achieved by launching 3 ariane 5 rockets in the 2006 configuration that can launch 20,000 kg in GTO.

We impose coordinate systems on planetary surfaces to define locations, compute distances and areas mathematically, and give us a control grid for mapping. The poles, equator, and parallels of latitude are defined by the planet's intrinsic property of rotation, but placement of the Prime Meridian of longitude is arbitrary. Proper placement and use of the Prime Meridian can make the coordinate system easy and intuitive, or difficult and confusing. Current systems in use for the Moon (more than one are used) are awkward and out of date. We propose the Prime Meridian bisect a prominent feature close to the Moon's "West Pole": Mare Orientale (20 degrees S, 95 degrees W); and, that longitude increase from 0 degrees to 360 degrees in the direction of rotation. We call this the "Lunar West Pole Prime Meridian" system. Today's "Mean Earth / Polar Axis" system dates from 1775 when mariners used the Moon to find longitude at sea. The mean sub-Earth point, in the center of the nearside, defines the Prime Meridian. Meridians are referenced in degrees east and west, or + and –, from this point. No significant lunar feature marks this Prime Meridian. This system is still used, with one major change: "east" and "west" were switched by international agreement in 1961. Earth's Prime Meridian has changed several times. The lunar coordinate system should be convenient for those on the Moon and in space as well as those on Earth. It also should be referenced to an endogenous lunar feature, not another planet. The Lunar West Pole Prime Meridian system is an improvement over the present system for all users. Longitudes roughly from 0 degrees to 195 degrees are on the lunar nearside (includes libration) and 195 degrees to 360 degrees span the farside. Adding 5 degrees to Earth's angle from the eastern horizon gives longitude directly. The all-positive numbering system-makes computation of change or distance in longitude easier, and removes sources of error. This location of the Prime Meridian is clearly discernable from space: a naïve observer might easily pick Mare Orientale as a marker. The Lunar West Pole Prime Meridian system is useful, simple, elegant, intuitive, endogenous to the Moon, and conforms to modern standards.

When a link is established between the technological / cultural expertise of humankind and the virtually unlimited resources of space, the human species will become a true space faring civilization. Humankind will then be able to conduct large-scale operations in space, independent of Earth resources, and the people of the Earth will benefit from the vast energy and material resources of space. The most expedient means for becoming a space faring species is to establish a scientific / industrial base on the Moon.

This paper describes a place - "Malapert Mountain" - in the South Polar region of the Moon whose physical features and location make it highly promising as a strategic site for the next stage of lunar exploration. The paper is an update of the authors' previous paper on the same subject, and significantly refines, corrects, and expands pertinent prior data.

Lunar bases will need lighting for exploration, construction, mining, industry, life support, operations, and maintenance. In many respects, lighting on the Moon will involve adaptations of familiar methods. Efficiency, robustness, and serviceability will be required. During the lunar day, sunlight is available using heliostats, lenses and light tubes. Some of these items can be used for distribution of artificial light as well. Illumination may be augmented by using transparent, translucent, light-colored or reflective walls and panels. Moon lighting presents special challenges, such as dust amelioration, heat management, and lavatube illumination. Spectrum manipulation can promote or inhibit living organisms, as desired. Using lunar resources to manufacture lighting equipment will save money over Earth sourcing, so designs should be compatible with lunar sourced components as these become available.

A review of concrete basics is presented to provide a general background for discussions of the potential uses of concrete on the Moon and Mars. Problems associated with production of cement, mixing methods, water introduction methods, curing methods, and reclamation of free water are discussed. An example concrete mix design using precise slabs to cover a habitat is presented. The example shows that for 42 cubic yards of concrete, 23,688 pounds of cement and 1,370 pounds of water are required for a water-to-cement ration of 0.48. Only about 5,685 pounds of water is needed for cement hydration. The balance of the water is free water and should be reclaimed or methods devised for dry mixing and adding just enough water to hydrate the cement. Recommendations for further experimental research are presented.

Missions to surfaces of planetary bodies and asteroids, whether manned or robotic, will encounter dust, soil, and rock fragments, possibly combined with ice, which will affect mechanical operations. Contact with these materials may be incidental or intentional in the case of digging or drilling operations. The complications encountered on the Apollo missions must be resolved before a long-term facility can be established on the lunar surface. In the quest for a manned mission to Mars there are many unanswered questions about the Martian surface and how it will impact the mechanical and life-support operation on the Martian surface. Robotic missions will also encounter the soils and rocks of Mars and interesting asteroids on sample return missions. This paper discusses potential problems associated with mechanical operations in contact with the regolith (soil and rocks). Typical operations that may take place are described as background information and a detailed description or the Martian regolith is presented for background purposes. A companion paper titled "The Impact of Incidental Contact with Regolith in Martian and Lunar Environments," describes the lunar regolith and discusses potential problems contact with the regolith may cause for surface operations Potential problems associated with intentional contact are discussed in this paper along with recommended areas for further research. The paper culminates with a list of recommended research areas, many of which require physical experiments for validation.

To explore and utilize lava tube caverns, a negotiable entrance is vital. Lavatube entrance amelioration includes clearing debris, establishing a transportation right-of-way, and preparing for and installing various access aids. There are four main types of entrances to lavatube caves: a "rille entrance," a "skylight," a "hornito," and an engineered, artificial skylight. A rille entrance should be easiest to improve. In rare cases it may be possible to simply walk or drive into the lavatube. More likely, the rille entrance will be choked by initial rille collapse and eons of weathering. A mucker and cable assembly used to clear the entrance might become a cablecar. Later, a suspended road may be built. A skylight forms when a small portion of the cave ceiling collapses. The skylight entrance is prone to further collapse. Given their great age, unstable areas will probably have collapsed already. Beneath the skylight, there is most likely a chaotic pile of collapse debris ("breakdown"), covered with regolith. Dangerous slopes of regolith lead into the hole. Survey and stabilization are the first steps of entrance amelioration. Mechanical aides from nets and ladders to A-frame pulleys and small elevators can then be emplaced. Later development could include large freight elevators up to a skylight-spanning "Maxivator" suitable for lowering entire ships into the lavatube shelter. Hornitos occur where temporary blockage within the active lavatube causes molten lava to burst out to the surface, leaving a surface cone of solid basalt with a central hole leading to the cave. There may only be minor debris below this hole. A hornito provides a strong lip and solid foundation for devices to lower material and people into the cave. Where a cave lacks a handy entrance, an artificial skylight could be created. The edges of the hole would be engineered, and the roof is not necessarily weak in its vicinity. Utility holes of various sizes could be drilled directly. Larger holes could be created by direct blasting, or precision blasting to result in a removable plug. The improvement of lavatube entrances will require a range of engineering solutions. Since lavatubes on the Moon or Mars are expected to be vast, the effort of entrance amelioration is small relative to the sheltered space it makes available. The cost is low compared to the payoff.

Reports of the discovery of near surface ice deposits in the regolith at the lunar poles by the Lunar Prospector have renewed interest in the possibility of using indigenous water resources to support future lunar exploration. Previous research efforts of the Author were directed toward the conceptual development and economic analysis of a mining system for the extraction of water from a near surface, permafrost zone overlain by friable regolith similar to the deposits recently discovered by the Lunar Prospector. The successful planning and development of a safe and efficient lunar mine will require the completion of an exploration program to identify a mineable hydrous ore body, and the design and testing of lunar mining equipment and operating procedures.

Long term habitation of Lunar and Mars bases requires successful onsite production of food, plants, and microbes. This paper presents requirements and opportunities for the successful implementation of plant growth systems for Lunar and Mars inhabited bases. Agriculture systems must be designed for high reliability under adverse conditions. Systems must also be designed to serve multiple purposes.

Adverse effects of dust accumulation on spacecraft and rover surfaces hinder the functioning of equipment on Mars and consequently limit mission duration. Hence, dust is an important parameter in the design, development, and testing of equipment for Mars surface missions. A review of Martian dust composition, transport, deposition, adhesion, and removal is presented. Martian dust has consistent average chemical and mineralogical composition over the entire planet. Sources of dust transport and deposition on the surface of Mars include ordinary atmospheric settling, dust storms, dust devils, near surface saltation, and artificial human/robotic disturbance of the regolith. Mechanisms of dust adhesion include chemical bonding, cementation, ice bridges, capillary forces, van der Waals forces, and electrostatic forces. There are a number of different methods to cause particle removal including vibration, centrifuge, impact, electrostatic repulsion, liquid or air flow, thermophoresis, and direct manipulation using a mechanical device. This paper presents a summary of what is known about Martian dust and its removal to date.

An investigation is in progress to evaluate the bearing capacity, trafficability, and shear strength of Martian regolith by analysis of Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) photographs and laser altimeter (MOLA) measurements. Types of analysis include computer modeling of landslides, natural slope stability calculations, angle of repose measurements, depth of boulder tracks, and height of vertical slopes. Ongoing analysis of soil mechanics data is necessary to better define the design parameters needed for future landing site selection and to engineer equipment for interaction with the Martian surface. The focus of the current investigation is the evaluation of high priority landing sites for the 2003 Mars Exploration Rover mission.

Rapid ground penetrators are becoming popular tools for exploring the Moon and Mars. They are cost-effective and enable placement of scientific instruments at the surface and subsurface of select locations. A simplified analytical method of predicting the performance of rapid ground penetrators in normal and in oblique impact is presented here. The analytical solution assumes that the penetrator nose causes a cavity expansion of soil disks as it is advanced perpendicularly through the center of the disks. The oblique impact model is also based on kinematics and assumes that the lateral movement of the penetrator is resisted by the soil's plastic stress. A new soil-locking model is used. The analytical method has been written into a PC-based computer program that is called GRDPEN. Presented herein are also predictions of the performance of a single- and a multi-stage penetrator in normal and in oblique impact at various impact velocities. The method was also used to predict the performance and stress levels of penetrators with different nose shapes.

Future missions to Mars and the lunar surface will require innovative thinking in order to combat the harsh conditions found in these environments. The complications encountered on the Apollo missions must be resolved before a long-term facility can be established on the lunar surface. In the quest to send a man to Mars there are many unanswered questions about the Martian surface and how it will impact mechanical and life-support operations on the Martian surface. The paper summarizes the characteristics of lunar and Martian soil and then deals with the problems associated with incidental contact with the lunar and Martian regolith. This paper will discuss the known issues with going back to the moon and establishing a long-term base there. The suspected reactions during the lunar night and the possibility of lunar ice are also discussed. The effects of intentionally engaging the Martian and Lunar Regolith is discussed in the companion paper "Potential Effects of Lunar and Mars Soils on Mechanical Operations". The theorized reactions of the Martian environment with mechanical and life-support operations are discussed as well. The paper concludes with recommendations for further research as well as recommendations for the most viable solutions to these problems.

Space exploration and utilization create a need for robotically collected samples from the ‘rocky' surface materials of planets and satellites, asteroids and comets for comprehensive laboratory analyses on Earth. We need ground truth to calibrate remote sensing signals and the provenance of ‘passively'-collected meteorites and interplanetary dust particles wherefore the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties were measured in the laboratory. A synergy between ‘passive' and in situ collections by space missions has scientific and practical merit.

The SENSORS project founded by Tufts University seeks to teach science and technology to students via the Internet using LEGO robotics and the content of the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA) science missions. The Martian Dust Devil Exploration Simulator (MDDES) is the SENSORS site at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The project integrates many of the engineering disciplines with physics, math, geology and meteorology, making interdisciplinary connections using the context of the dust cycle on Mars. Students begin with simply observing and counting dust devils. More advanced students can create instrumentation, learn about the physics of dust devils, tornadoes and terrestrial and Martian weather. They can even explore the mathematics of dust devil formation. The MDDES also incorporates aspects of popular media, social studies, history, literature, agriculture and environmental conservation into the curriculum.

A direct current distribution system for a "proof of concept" solar power satellite is presented. The object of this satellite is to test the use of high temperature superconductors in space using passive cooling. The overall objective is to provide a small system whereby various satellite elements may be tested under actual operating conditions required for larger installations. Power requirements are determined along with costs and weights.

Strategic energy alternatives have assumed new importance in light of growing energy demand, supply stress and environmental stress. The established energy and aerospace corporations and agencies are not programmatically or financially capable of pursuing the high risk development necessary to build a Space Solar Power System (SSPS). The best means to pursue the great promise which SSP holds for America and the world is the formation of a congressionally chartered private corporation analogous to the extremely successful COMmunications SATellite (COMSAT) Act of 1962. Just as COMSAT, with it's sibling, INTELSAT, another congressionally chartered corporation, opened space to a hundred varieties of communication satellites, so the SpAce Solar PoweR satELLite corporation Act (SASPARILLA) could open space to SSP. Whereas the COMSAT Act was chartered to build commercial communications, SASPARILLA will be chartered to build commercial SSP satellites to collect and transmit energy to electric power grids on earth. The record for COMSAT shows that 39 years after COMSAT'S charter, the top 53 Space companies achieved $56 Billion in direct year 2000 space derived revenue (Space News, 7/30/01), due to the visionary developmental work Congress initiated through COMSAT and INTELSAT'S corporate leadership.

The high price of the Space Power Stations exists because of the great size of radiating and receiving antennas. These sizes are the result of the divergence of wave beam, which transmits the energy from space to the Earth. This is a matter of radiating and receiving antennas and their interaction. It is shown that correct choice of the field distribution on the radiation antenna allows increasing the wireless power transmission efficiency and to lessen it's cost.

This paper addresses the challenge of Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) for autonomous mobile robots. Specifically, it addresses the USAR contest held annually by the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI). It will consider the problem of USAR, the contest rules and set-up, the approach taken to solving the USAR problem by a number of university teams, including Utah State University, and a discussion of how a solution to the USAR problem is applicable to robotic planetary exploration.

The threat of possible collision of asteroids and comets with our planet has reached an international stage since 1990 when U.S.A. Congress set up a dedicated committee for the analysis and the assessment of this problem. The U.N organized a congress later on to summarize the current knowledge on this subject as well as the European Council recommended its member states to conduct studies to further deepen the understanding in terms of tackling and solving this kind of problem interesting the entire world. IMPACT is the acronym for "International Monitoring Program for Asteroids and Comets Threats" coming out as proposal from a study funded by the Italian region PIEMONTE throughout the Civil Protection Bureau and performed by the Planetology Group of the Astronomical Observatory of Torino (Italy) and Alenia Spazio for the engineering part (system and spacecraft design). They have carried out a series of analyses aimed at contributing in subsequent steps to the solution of the two fundamental problems associated to the potential impact threat: the assessment of the numbers of killers/terminators and the impact rates from one side and the development of the idea of considering space segments for supporting activities of discovery as well as the physical and mineralogical characterization using satellites in orbit around the Earth. The present paper will ponder a synthesis of the activities performed during this and other additional studies also funded by the European Space Agency where the space technology appears to offer a great contribution if conveniently integrated with the Earth networks for Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHA ) detection. An international approach for monitoring this threat for the Earth is then proposed.

The prevention of the next asteroid or comet impact on our planet is the most important technical challenge in history. Most of what we know about this danger (and what we can do to protect ourselves), we have learned in the last decade and we are now making progress, worldwide, in our preparedness. However, we are moving much too slowly, because there is not adequate support for the key programs. This report will summarize what we know and are doing. It will also address the major needs and emphasize the fact that all of the technology is available and that the cost of an adequate preparedness program...which would protect the human race and most of the life on the planet...is very small.

The problem of protecting the Earth from NEOs has attracted much attention in recent years. Conferences, books and even popular movies have discusses methods of deflecting or destroying NEOs headed toward Earth. Most of these have proposed a "magic bullet" solution of a single mission to the NEO. This paper argues that the single mission solution is unrealistic and that a multi-mission strategy is more likely to succeed in deflecting/destroying a NEO.

The Problem: Individuals can spend years of time and thousands, if not millions of dollars, to construct, test, and launch a satellite into earth orbit. The Solution: Near space, between the altitudes of 75,000 and 330,000 feet, has the look and feel of space (except for the prolong microgravity available on orbit). Individuals spend only a few months and less than $1000 to construct, test, and launch a functioning model of a satellite. An entire mission from liftoff to recovery is completed in time for lunch. In many cases, near space is good enough for the desired science and engineering tests.

Experiments at extreme altitudes in the stratosphere have historically been considered out of reach for the individual experimenter or scientist. This paper will discuss the reasons why balloons are the ideal choice for such experimenters, as well as present both the design and launch of the balloon platform RadioFlier-1, demonstrating the feasibility of this idea. The contents of the payload and various subsystems will be discussed in detail, along with the data retrieved from its initial flight. It is the goal of this paper to show that these results can be achieved with minimal outlay of capital and manpower.

This article describes a few high-altitude balloon experiments realized by a heterogeneous group of students, radio amateurs, professors and others. The emphasis of these experiments were to stimulate the interest in ham radio in general, and its investigative aspects in particular. Three flights were launched, from which lots of useful information was gathered, and many people, in a radius of more than 600 km helped out in the events.

The capability to fly a balloon payload at a constant pressure altitude using a fixed-volume envelope has existed for decades. However, the fixed-volume envelopes are expensive relative to latex balloons for small payloads (less than or equal to 100 lbs). A capability to fly small packages at a constant GPS-referenced altitude using latex balloons has been developed at Iowa State University. The concept uses multiple balloons of differing sizes, GPS position data, and a ballast system. The hold altitude does not need to be determined pre-launch, allowing for holding at an altitude based upon in-situ sensor data in real time. The system has been flight tested and used for a research mission by the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory through a contract with the University of Iowa. Although not an automated system, it has the potential to be automated at a future date.

There are many similarities between the high altitude environment of Earth and the atmospheric environment of Mars. Recent flight testing used the high altitude environment of Earth to simulate the final phase of Mars planetary entry. This paper describes the techniques used to design and implement a low-cost atmospheric entry test, in this case used for evaluation of a proposed technology for a solar heated, methanol inflated balloon for Mars exploration.

Parallel kinematical structures became a part of manufacturing processes, simulators, or a part of modules for the rendezvous and docking in space operations. These applications frequently need six degrees-of-freedom (DOF) force torque feedback between the multi-pod's platform and a machine's support or a target object. This paper is focused on an improvement of the positioning accuracy in the cooperation of the multi-pods parallel structures with a six degrees-of-freedom force torque transducer. The multi-pod's motion sensing system is derived from the pyramid modular sensory system for the sampling of information about a six DOF motion based on the conversion of the four 2-D PSD (CCD) array images into three axial shifting and three angular displacement values. A new way to compute the dilatation and constriction matrices is used for the direct and inverse transformation of mutual position of multi-pod's platform.

This paper presents methods to facilitate system risk assessment and risk, allocation during the conceptual design of an engineering system. A key capability, cost vs. risk trade-off assessments, may be made through probabilistic optimization. In this paper a probabilistic optimization is performed for the geometry of a re-useable launch vehicle, in collaboration with researchers at NASA Langley Research Center.

One of the most critical components in the oxygen generation assembly for long term human habitation system in space is the de-ionizing (DI) bed - a packed bed of ion-exchange resin beads - that purifies water by removing ions (dissolved salts and organic impurities) from reclaimed water. The DI bed shrinks during the course of its operation. For the bed to work satisfactorily, it is required that the bed is kept compressed and this is done with the aid of a compressed spring mechanism placed at one end. In this study, an experimental investigation is carried out in a DI bed material of Amberlite IRN-78 ion exchange resin to determine its load-deflection characteristics. Results are also presented for the factor to relate applied axial normal stress to induced lateral normal stress, shear angle, and apparent cohesion of DI bed material medium, and the load-deflection characteristics and most probable crushing force of individual ion-exchange resin beads. It is observed that the applied axial normal stress and the induced lateral normal stress at the inner wall surface have a linear relationship. The results also show that the ion-exchange material medium exhibits time dependent behavior, namely creep and stress reduction, possibly through particle re-arrangement.

An overall objective was to develop a high performance material to permit advanced propulsion and thus lower cost small-scale micro satellite launches. The specific goal was to manufacture titanium aluminide rocket nozzles and motors, and test them with propellant firing. The advantages of titanium aluminide as a representative intermetallic material included toughness, strength, and high temperature performance. The procedure was to mix titanium and aluminum metal powders, cold press them into green rocket motor shapes, and then ignite them using a new microwave-driven combustion synthesis technique. The results were that near net shaped nozzles were produced for the next stage of our overall micro satellite launch objective, new rocket motor designs suitable for advanced propulsion concepts. We concluded that microwave combustion synthesis could facilitate new rocket designs and propellants.

Based on 8051 architecture and classical control theory, an infrared tracker robot is designed implementation is described. In this robot a group of receivers can detect the beams source and a controller, which is based on classic control, leads it to the source of beams. In this design a commonplace CPU is used to implement all intelligent parts such as a controller. Designing of IO part, detectors, and all interfacing circuits is also mentioned. This inexpensive robot has a high movement precision and can be used in many applications including, searching for living persons and rescuing them.

The paper presents a classification based active search method to extract 3D information about objects in the workspace. The search requires object features, which remain static with observer motion. We propose a two-step visual exploration method for constructing 3D objects with minimum number of viewpoint placements for the vision system. The first step involves classification of objects into categories such as cylinders and boxes based on local geometric features. In the second step an active search uses local geometrical features specific to the classification to compute new viewpoints. After a sufficient number of views, the 3D object model is created. This approach results in a 3D model that is both accurate and computationally rapid.

This article presents experimental results for vision-based mobile robot control using a fixed camera. A commercially available vision system is used to identify the robot position and a moving goal position. With little a priori knowledge, the control method estimates the system model on-line and does not require calibrated camera or mobile robot parameters. Results demonstrating the control of two very different mobile robots using the same controller highlight the flexibility of the approach.

An approach to grasp synthesis using neural networks trained on simulated grasp data is presented. The method involves using a geometrically accurate simulation of a given gripper to obtain sets of finger contact points for a given class of objects (shape class) at numerous gripper configurations. A quality function is applied to each set of contact points and only grasps of acceptable quality are retained. The set of gripper configurations and associated quality values for object i constitute training set TS_i. The collection of TS_i for a shape class is used to train one or more neural networks, which can generalize beyond the training sets to synthesize acceptable grasps on new objects of this shape class. Using a simulated environment to train the neural network relieves the user from the burden of collecting a suitably large set of training data. The resultant neural network performs as a generalization of the training data. An example of the method on a set of ellipsoids is shown.

A gait generation method for biped robots that realizes stabilization of the single-supporting phase by taking advantage of robustness of the double-supporting phase is developed. Considering these points, the proposed method utilizes the double-supporting phase to eliminate disturbances that are caused by ground condition and/or other factors affecting stability of biped locomotion. In our method, ample stability margin in the double-supporting phase is also exploited to realize the angular momentum that is required by the next single-supporting phase. The proposed method can achieve more stable continuous walk due to these features. In this paper, the proposed gait generation method is explained in detail and some results of experiments using originally developed humanoid robot are reported.

We have built a pair of small, interacting robots in order to demonstrate the use of a programmable logic device as the controlling circuitry. The autonomous robots were programmed to behave like predator and prey with the behavior or intelligence/control programmed into the programmable device—which we call the "personality chip." The power of this approach is that switching out the chip changes the behavior of the robot without requiring other changes so the tasking can be changed easily. We demonstrate this by switching the predator/prey roles, after which the robots immediately change their respective behaviors.

This paper covers the composition, description, technical characteristics and test results of a system of robotic complexes (SRC). These systems were developed for technical centers of the Russian Ministry of Atomic Industry to operate in areas exposed to radioactive contamination and other environments hazardous for people. Specialized transport robots (STR-1) used as a base for the SRC employed quite successfully in the clean-up operation following the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (NPP) accident. The requirements and results of this application are analyzed.

The Rocker-Bogie Mobility system was designed to be used at slow speeds. It is capable of overcoming obstacles that are on the order of the size of a wheel. However, when surmounting a sizable obstacle, the vehicles motion effectively stops while the front wheel climbs the obstacle. When operating at low speed (greater than 10cm/second), dynamic shocks are minimized when this happens. For many future planetary missions, rovers will have to operate at human level speeds (~1m/second) Shocks resulting from the impact of the front wheel against an obstacle could damage the payload or the vehicle. This paper describes a method of driving a rocker-bogie vehicle so that it can effectively step over most obstacles rather than impacting and climbing over them. Most of the benefits of this method can be achieved without any mechanical modification to existing designs - only a change in control strategy. Some mechanical changes are suggested to gather the maximum benefit and to greatly increase the effective operational speed of future rovers.

Automation and Robotics (A&R) systems are currently considered as a key technology for Mars exploration. All over the world initiatives in this field aim at developing new A&R systems and technologies for planetary surface exploration. Since September 2000 Kayser-Threde GmbH, Munich (Germany) leads a study called AROMA (Automation and Robotics for Human Mars Exploration) under ESA contract in order to define a reference architecture of A&R elements in support of a human Mars exploration program.. One of the goals of this effort is to initiate new developments and to maintain the competitiveness of European industry within this field. This paper presents a summary of the results of this Mars A&R study.

The paper is devoted to the problem of development of a small-sized compact Martian rover able to carry out investigations on the surface of Mars at a large distance from a landing site in autonomous mode. The scientific tasks of the mission, method for landing on the Martian surface as well as a composition and technical characteristics of the Mars rover are described.

Robotic based telescopes can be used by middle school students to learn actively about science and astronomy. Through the use of telescopic filters, students can learn through an active process that utilizes internet accessible telescopes and CCD imaging devices. Students can capture images of celestial objects using current technology and can engage in research based activities beyond initial imaging. Students can perform astronomical experiments using qualitative strategies. This paper outlines methods and strategies created to promote examination of filtered images. By using a five stage rubric, students can observe, analyze and gain a basic understanding of the process of astronomical research, learn about astronomical concepts, characteristics of celestial objects and how telescopes can be used.

A space exploration robot wheel may lose significant amount of energy as a result of slippage on an embankment covered by ice. Mobility is a function of the non-uniform pressure distribution that exists within the contact region. The purpose of this paper is to show the existence of over-pressure and under-pressure zones within the instantaneous junction. Bounded by a thin and deformable rim, the wheel is simplified to a disc with rigid core. The distance between the centers of wheel and disc is neglected. Three terrain reactions and three variable rates of disc azimuth, inclination, and spin are found from the moment of momentum relation for a rigid body. Decoupling of elastic effects isolates two boundary value problems. The first formulation involves exterior forces and their points of application, and leads to a compressive stress field, for the rim is flattened against the rigid terrain and an entry angle is created. At low levels of inertial forces, the field remains compressive. Slippage is the amount of surface asperity failure and subsequent movement from entry to the stick-position of the instantaneous axis of rotation. Viewed within a non-rotating frame that translates with the center of mass, the jumps from one stick-position to another. The extent of the jump depends on the amount of slippage. In any one location, the dwell duration is equal to the time it takes a nm material element to transit through the junction. Displacements of points on the inner surface of the rim are specified in the second boundary value problem. Normal components of velocity are equal across the rim surface inasmuch as this direction remains unaffected by slippage along the terrain and there is a physical bond with the disc They are obtained by integration of the differential equations that represent the motions of a material point and associated instantaneous axis of rotation, over the time spent in the region of contact. In general, the pressure variation is indicated by zones of over-pressure followed by under-pressure relative to the primary compressive field, and resultant force acts forward from the center of the bearing area.

ORBCOMM is a satellite-based system that provides global data messaging services. Conceived in 1989 by Orbital Sciences Corporation, the $810 million company became operational in 1998, and then filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in September 2000. This article provides a brief history of the development of ORBCOMM and gives a summary description of the technology involved and applications. While not critical in nature, the article addresses a number of business issues that may have contributed to ORBCOMM not being able to sign up a sufficient number of customers to survive. The most significant of these issues were the ground systems development lagging the space segment deployment and the fact that the market demand for monitoring and' tracking equipment did not materialize as predicted. ORBCOMM was bought by a new group of investors in April 2001 for an estimated amount of $5–10 million. The article offers a number of ways how the company may succeed henceforth.

Within the space sector and supporting infrastructure, vast levels of experience, knowledge and ideas are wasted, due to the lack of opportunities to pursue and develop them. Graduates from academia often outweigh the number of new positions available, whilst staff in existing employment are being downsized. This has largely been caused by governmental cut backs to space programmes or through private companies already having maximum headcount. Another example of an under-utilised resource is the numerous entrepreneurs and innovators, who are unable to compete on their own against the larger, already established, private companies. This barrier to enter the space sector market deters investment and investors from being tied up in a high risk, long term return venture. In this case of demand (for employment) outweighing supply (of available opportunities), a new concept is required to bridge this gap and attempt to fully utilise all individuals and their knowledge. FocusZenith is a newly formed, independent organisation, based in the United Kingdom. It is the objective of the organisation: (1) to research and develop issues affecting the space sector, (2) to promote new interest in space, science and technology, by being a point of contact for educational purposes, (3) to act as a focal point for centralising independent efforts, (4) to provide employment and co-operative opportunities between the company and other individuals and organisations, and (5) to act as a "one-stop-shop" for business and marketing matters. It is planned for FocusZenith to expand and cement ties with both governmental organisations and others in the private sector, thus creating a network of individuals, small independent companies and entrepreneurs. The creation of strategic alliances with these various bodies will allow each to utilise their skills or develop their own ideas and have the necessary knowledge at hand to make this possible. Also, enlisting the expertise of member groups on specific projects will allow easier market entry and increase the market share potential for all involved. This network will serve a second purpose, as it can be implemented when completing research on behalf of other organisations. However, legislative constraints regarding issues such as transfer of technology and data protection, will need to be addressed, both within the strategic alliance and when working for other organisations Internally, the implementation of a "Code of Conduct and Courtesy" will alleviate many areas of concern. The full potential of FocusZenith and supportive strategic alliances will only be truly realised as more and more visionaries participate in this advancement in space business. Closer working of individuals and small organisations in one collective venture will allow more opportunity for growth and development to occur through mutually beneficial co-operation.

There is little doubt that astronauts have proved highly effective in performing in-orbit servicing tasks, the most well-known being the first Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Repair Mission in 1993. As a consequence of this and other servicing EVAs (extravehicular activity), spacecraft are now being designed with modular architectures to allow in-orbit servicing to be performed through the replacement of orbital replacement units (ORU). Certainly, humans have proven to be useful in space but EVA does expose astronauts to a number of potential hazards. Furthermore, it is very clear that using astronauts as in-orbit "cable repairmen" is not an effective use of resources [Ellery 2001]. The costs of a Space Shuttle mission are vast and often difficult to obtain - $245M, $420M, $1B have been quoted in different quarters, but these figures vary according to whether they factor in hidden costs such as astronaut training, etc. The astronauts trained for 400 hours in the neutral buoyancy tank at MSFC and JSC in preparation for the first HST repair mission. The cost to the insurers of the Intelsat VI repair mission by astronauts was $150M but the cost of the first HST repair mission was quoted as $700M. It would be far more cost-effective if in-orbit servicing were performed robotically as part of a growing Earth orbit infrastructure. Finally, astronauts only have access to low-inclination low earth orbit (LEO) whereas most commercial spacecraft operate in other orbits inaccessible to astronauts - communications satellites mostly reside in geostationary equatorial orbit (GEO) and Earth Observation satellites generally reside in high inclination (polar) orbits. Many scientific satellites (which are not generally insured) reside in medium altitude orbits of ~1000+ km altitude beyond reach of the Shuttle.

This paper argues that the vastly different volume of traffic for spaceports and airports/seaports makes business models for the latter unsuitable for guiding spaceport development. Instead it argues that commercial spaceports must be instead viewed as multi-purpose industrial facilities. It then proposes a new model of a spaceport as ah engine for regional economic growth by attracting multiple industries to the facility.

Lunar and Mars base planners concentrate on one or two economic drivers to justify a base. This is like the "killer app" in the computer world, the single indispensable application that justifies the computer purchase. "Secondary profit generators," numerous economic activities that make a complex lunar or Mars base work, have received less attention. Trade with Earth is a special case. Due to Earth's deep gravity well, transportation costs are far from reciprocal. Earth industry produces vital items unavailable elsewhere; however, Earth's large population represents a huge market for offworld products. Space commerce among bases on the Moon, Mars, and elsewhere in space brings opportunities in transportation, sales, legal services, and trade in minerals and volatiles, to name a few. As bases specialize, an interbase economy will develop. Bases can specialize in power production or construction, for example. Precious volatiles could be traded, as long as they remain onworld. Intrabase economy, or commerce within a single base, opens up a range of small business possibilities including repair shops, laundry, professional services, and others. The more secondary profit generators a base can develop, the stronger and more resilient the base economy will be. Settlements initiated as "company towns" will transition to diversified economies. Ultimately, the aggregate of secondary profit generators could dominate base balance sheets and do away with the need for a single economic driver to make a base a viable, going concern.

Managing the space technology development process in the best possible way is a priority for any space related organization. Finance and decision analysis are two critical fields, which can make major contributions to technology development in general, and to space technology development in particular. In this context, two main methods will be examined in this paper: real options methodology and portfolio optimization. Maintaining a close alignment between strategic objectives and technological capability is crucial for both public and private space entities. An integrated decision support system, including cost/benefit and risk analyses, can be very instrumental for this alignment. This paper outlines the basic components of such a system, considering both theoretical and practical aspects.

Now that the International Space Station (ISS) is nearly completion, strategies for developing its potential as a commercial research facility are being explored. This paper proposes the creation of a public International Space Station Development Corporation (ISSDC) to manage the commercial development of the ISS. The creation of this for-profit corporation would provide a means of using private investment to complete the construction of the ISS while still retaining government control of the facility. More importantly, it would allow the member states of the ISS Agreement to retain control and ownership of the ISS while testing its potential to commercialization.

This paper invokes three alternative theoretical perspectives — contingency theory, organizational politics and institutional theory— to examine key decision processes with respect to the organizational form in the early stages of the space station program at NASA. Causal mapping technique was used to map the thought patterns of the three groups of decision makers. There were major differences in the perceptions of the three groups regarding the relative influence of these perspectives in the decision making process. Results indicate that these perspectives exist simultaneously and compete with each other in the decision making process.

The paper articulates the need for a coherent plan for a Space-Based economy. Such a plan would allow all segments of industry and the public to participate as stakeholders rather than as spectators. The architecture as laid out provides the argument to synergize efforts directed at the Moon, NEO, Mars and the Asteroids, and identifies the engineering roles of the construction, mining and transportation industries in enabling such an economy.. Long-term human habitation beyond Earth requires radiation shielding. This requirement drives the design of orbital habitats, which are an essential component of a Space-based economy. Past attempts to design such habitats have been hindered by the lack of suitable construction means for such high-mass, large structures. This problem is revisited in the light of advances in lunar power production, metal extraction, robotic manufacturing, solar-heated propulsion for orbit transfer vehicles, and telepresence. It is shown that the construction of a 1km-radius cylindrical radiation shield is both feasible and cost-effective when done as part of a coherent plan for a Space-based economy. The architecture presents a scheme for bootstrapping resources on the Moon to provide power, metal extraction, and an electromagnetic mass driver, followed by a process for automated construction of the massive radiation shield and essential internal structure. Methods for costing and financing such a project are considered. It is seen that when set in the context of a coherent plan for a Space-based economy, the level of public investment comes down to levels of present public infrastructure and environmental projects. In addition, risk assessments for each of the component entities shows that risk is brought down to levels which can appeal to investors.

The void in outer space is extended to a void in legal standards by treaty, and by UN committees. "Space governance" is a term that describes another level of direct government for outer space to supplement the international treaty system. The Regency of United Societies in Space is identified as one important aspect of direct governance for space. Its organic documents are presented and its personnel listed. This paper will not only update the activities of United Societies in Space, but, will also provide two examples of how this regime dovetails with the UN international space treaty regime.

By treaty, space resources are categorized as the common property of humanity. The public interest appears to exclude private ownership. However, part of the space governance movement is a plan for private ownership of equitable estates in space resources. The common law model is revisited and the historical analogy is made. Real property is distinguished from personal property; space resources are distinguished from space objects; and public interests are separated from private property. Common law possessory estates with limited life are recommended.

A pilot project is described whereby the new library in Douglas County, Colorado, will house a specialized space library section, complete with a display area, artwork, and telescope capacity. The selected volumes will be listed, including ASCE publications. Dr. Buzz Aldrin's support and activity will be disclosed. The special section of this new library was designed to be duplicable in every community with a willing library board of directors. The budget and funding techniques are detailed. The outer space section as developed for the Douglas County, Colorado, public library is promoted for duplication internationally by space activists in their community.

As humankind proceeds with space exploration, colonization, and development of space activities in the 21st Century, the relationship between space and the extraterrestrial environment emerges as a crucial area. A number of questions in this regard need to be considered and addressed: do humans have a right to extract resources from space and planetary bodies, to create human supported biospheres in space and on planetary surfaces, and to terraform celestial bodes inhospitable to "human" life; should space be protected to safeguard human ends such as scientific inquiry; does humanity have a direct obligation to the welfare of the space environment; do the needs of extraterrestrial life forms (even if only microorganisms) take precedence over (or require protection from) life from Earth; do humans need to protect indigenous life forms from "Earth" life forms that may cause harmful effects; what is the human responsibility to preserve the worlds of the Solar System in their wilderness states for present and future generations; and what are the guidelines for space exploration activities on planetary bodies to keep potential environmental impacts to a minimum. In addressing the issues raised by these questions, this paper identifies and discusses three environmental ethical frameworks: (1) anthropocentrism, (2) biocentrism, and (3) cosmocentrism. These frameworks serve as a roadmap for the range of space exploration polices that can be directed to spread life, and search for life, in the Solar System in an environmentally responsible fashion.

A system of governance will be required for each of the human settlements that will predictably be established on the Moon, Mars, and other sites in the solar system in the 21^st century. The success or failure of the extraterrestrial settlements will depend to a large degree upon the ability of their respective governments to create bodies of laws that facilitate space exploration and development and that serve the best interests of space faring peoples and institutions. The present paper discusses the "ideal law of government" as a model for the design of the laws of space governments.