Journal of Pipeline Systems Engineering and Practice

In the construction industry, technology plays a significant role. Techniques such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), holograms, and other visualization techniques have been primarily concerned with sectors such as sales, marketing, and real estate. This paper aims to develop a handheld mobile application that assists facility engineers in visualizing all underground utilities enriched with all inspection data using building information modeling (BIM) technologies. It outlines a process for developing a smartphone AR application that visualizes infrastructure networks to improve infrastructure operation and maintenance (O&M) workflows. Localizing precision is a significant issue for two reasons. The first is that virtual 3D graphics models are not stable via most AR applications. The second is that they make the user believe that the virtual model floats or does not represent reality. The BIM 360 Docs application is used to store and manage all project data such as drawings, reports, and 3D models, whereas BIM 360 Build is used in completing and sending inspection forms. Vuforia and ARCore software development kits (SDKs) are being comparatively researched. This study aims to measure the scaling and flickering of the ARField mobile application, virtual model consistency, and the mobile devices it supports. A survey was conducted between managers/engineers of installations and visualization experts. This survey emphasizes the usability, technicality, and probability of the application distribution. The findings show that 80% of visualization experts realized that the application developed by ARCore SDK is more robust than the application developed by Vuforia. It is worth noting that the proposed research is considered an integrated AR construction technology that facilitates asset management professionals’ tasks by providing an easy-to-use reliable solution.

In cities, reinforced concrete pipes are often employed to construct storm sewer systems. Due to impervious base layers, stormwater runoff dominates rather than rainwater infiltration, leading to problems in aquatic ecosystems (e.g., degradation in urban watersheds, flood attenuation, and water quality). A thermoplastic perforated pipe can provide drainage channels in applications of solid waste landfills, mining heap leach pads, or irrigation systems. Inspired by these applications, perforation can be implemented in a reinforced concrete sewer to alter the moisture conditions in the ground under impervious base layers. Three-edge bearing tests and four-point flexural tests are conducted to investigate the structural integrity of perforated sewer pipes. A numerical model is also calibrated for use to optimize the layout design of drainage holes. It is found that perforation can result in strength degradation in concrete pipe, but the reduction in strength is not significant. A correlation between the ultimate load and opening ratio is established for the two testing conditions. The allowable opening ratio is determined as 0.2%, below which a perforated sewer can fulfill the requirements for both drainage and load resistance.

The pipeline, as the fifth largest transportation tool after railway, highway, waterway, and air transportation, has been widely used in industrial production and life. However, in the process of pipeline operations, rapid opening and closing of valves or pump stopping can lead to water hammer. The periodic pressure wave caused by water hammer can be much greater than the normal operating pressure of the pipeline. Because of water hammer, pipelines are susceptible to aging and damage that may cause local wall thickness reduction or local pipe property change. In this paper, singularity is defined as an abnormal state area during the use of the pipeline. It includes the corrosion thinning area of the pipeline wall, changes in the supporting environment around the pipeline, and the uneven stress area applied to the pipe wall because of water hammer vibrations. Different types of singular points have different characteristics. We focus on two types of singular points’ characteristics in this paper: (1) nonpenetrating damage on the outer surface of pipe; and (2) local material change. Specifically, if the pipe wall thickness decreases locally due to pipeline damage, the ratio of wall thickness reduction to wall thickness corresponds to the depth of singularity, and the decrease of local wall thickness corresponds to the increase of the depth of singularity. The axial expansion of damage corresponds to the increase of the axial length of singularity. Similarly, when the local material of the pipe changes, the singularity corresponds to the part of the pipe where the local material changes. This part of the singularity material can be other material types that are inconsistent with the pipe material, such as the connecting part of a PVC pipe in two sections of steel pipe. Note that most detection methods of the pipeline leakage are post-leakage detection, which brings risks such as the wasting of resources. In this paper, the harmful energy of water hammer is taken as the excitation source of the pipeline, and the vibration characteristics of the pipeline are studied. The singularity characteristics of the pipeline relate to the vibration of the pipeline excited by water hammer, which provides a basis for the detection before the singularity becomes the leakage point. Based on COMSOL software, the fluid-free pipeline model and the water hammer excited flow pipeline model are constructed. Detection points are set to detect different characteristics (depth characteristics, axial length characteristics, and material characteristics) of pipeline singularity, and the influence of the singularity on the pipeline stress, pressure, displacement, and other parameters is studied. When the depth of singularity is 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80% of the wall thickness, the pipeline’s maximum pressure increases with the increase of the depth of singularity; when the water hammer is applied to the pipeline, the depth of singularity increases, the pipeline’s maximum stress increases, and the displacement at the singular point of the pipeline decreases. Compared with the depth of the singularity, the axial length of the singularity is 0.02, 0.025, 0.03, 0.035, and 0.04 m, respectively. It has a lesser influence on the pipeline characteristics than the depth of singularity. The material change of the singularity will also have an impact on the pipeline vibration, a factor which can be applied to the seismic design of pipelines. Detection before the singularity becomes a leak is the objective. These phenomena show that, based on vibration wave transmission characteristics, it is feasible in mechanism to achieve this objective.

Like any other asset, water pipelines deteriorate over time and become vulnerable to sudden failures, which often result in costly replacement actions. In recent years, various techniques have been developed for effective condition assessment of such pipelines. However, limited guidelines are available for selecting these technologies. The objective of this study was to fill the knowledge gap in the selection of inspection and monitoring technologies for large-diameter steel pipes (SP) and prestressed concrete cylinder pipes (PCCP) by developing a decision-support tool using analytical hierarchy process (AHP). A comprehensive condition assessment index (CAI) was developed for various inspection techniques by describing available inspection techniques, analyzing various failure modes and their causes, and developing a computer program that can select an appropriate inspection technique based on the factors that influence failures. The developed CAI is analyzed for each inspection method and a suitable technique is recommended based on impacting factors of individual pipes. This paper will help utility owners and agencies in making informed decisions regarding the selection of appropriate inspection techniques for large-diameter steel and prestressed concrete cylinder water transmission pipelines. Further studies are needed to better analyze the failure mechanism of large-diameter water mains to include prefailure indicators while estimating the CAI.

The water supply network is of great importance for a city, and it faces various risks such as leaks and breaks, so its risk level needs to be evaluated regularly. To propose a new and efficient method to evaluate the risk level of water supply network operation, an evaluation index system of water supply network has been established, the proportion of each evaluation factor is calculated by Analytic Network Process (ANP). On this basis, the model based on the ANP-fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method is established, and the risk level of the water supply network in the Yangtze River Delta is evaluated through a program compiled by the authors. The spatial maps are used to show the impacted pipelines clearly. The results showed that most of the pipelines in the Yangtze River Delta are in a good state, and only some pipelines need to be repaired.

For long-span structures, such as long bridges and underground pipelines, the loss of correlation of ground movements during an earthquake should be taken into account for seismic analyses. In this paper, longitudinal seismic responses of underground pipelines, which are modeled as distributed mass pipelines with fixed-fixed ends, are derived with a pseudo-excitation method. The seismic excitation is considered a random process and partially correlated. The root mean square (RMS) axial stresses and displacements are compared between pipelines with fixed-fixed and free-free ends. The effects of slenderness ratio and pipe thickness on the seismic responses are also investigated. The results show that the seismic response of fixed-ends and free-ends pipelines matches well when the slenderness ratio is large enough. On the contrary, the boundary conditions should be taken into account for short pipes or pipes with a large external radius. The RMS axial stresses at the midpoint of the pipes decrease with the increase of pipe thickness, and no significant difference is found between fixed-ends and free-ends pipes.

Pipelines are essential elements in the daily operation of modern cities, but significant economic loss and environmental damage commonly occur because of pipeline leakage. The acoustic method has proven to be effective for leak detection and location in gas pipelines. However, very little is currently known about the characteristics of leak noise generated by different leak shapes, sizes, and pressures. Moreover, the feasibility of the acoustic method in the presence of complexities has not been closely examined. This study attempted to address these research gaps through an experimental investigation. A pipeline test bed with a length of approximately 100 m and an internal diameter of 150 mm was established, and was structured to permit different leak shapes (circle and rectangle), sizes ($\phi 1$, $\phi 3$, and $\phi 5$ for circular leaks; $2\times 1$, $2\times 3$, and $2\times 10\mathrm{mm}$ for rectangular leaks) and pressures (0.1 and 0.3 MPa). The cross-correlation method was used to locate the leakage. The results suggest that leak noise is mainly concentrated at low frequencies and was capable of being transmitted into the branch and across bends. It is likely to be the leak area that affects leak noise and the effect of leak shapes can be neglected. The leak was accurately detected and located with a sensor distance of up to 70.15 m when the bandpass filter was appropriately selected. The feasibility of the acoustic method to detect and locate leakages in complex pipelines was demonstrated.

Recent research by Matthews et al. at the Louisiana Tech University Trenchless Technology Center (TTC) regarding styrene emissions produced during steam-cured, styrene-based cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) installation was compared to data from six relevant, independent studies. As part of this analysis, data in the reviewed studies were compared to exposure guidelines published by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA). Measurement methodology and goals were considered and briefly described in the analysis. Finally, this paper highlights differences and similarities in the conclusions and measurements of the reviewed studies while searching for and identifying conclusions and trends that are common across the reviewed studies.

The pressure-containing encirclement sleeve (Type B) is one of the most widely employed oil and gas pipeline repair methods. It is used for both in-service pipelines and various types of defect repairs, including leakage and nonleakage defects, cracks, and internal and external metal loss. According to the pipeline design pressure, Type B sleeves are opted for due to the possibility of leakage and the consequent pressurization of the sleeve. Thus, the pipe commonly used has similar characteristics to those employed in the pipeline. In this research, the multistage strain hardening method was used to expand the pipelines’ internal diameter, using it as a pressure-containing encirclement sleeve. An experimental investigation was conducted to assess the mechanical and physical properties of the sleeve made from line pipes 915 and 1,067 mm in diameter. FEM was employed to evaluate the sleeve’s stress analysis. The results demonstrated that the characteristics of the pressure-containing sleeve, produced using strain hardening, met the appropriate standard requirements. The mechanical and physical properties of the sleeve improved following strain hardening. Furthermore, the maximum operating pressure of the pressure-containing sleeve increased following the cold working method, often exceeding that of the repaired pipelines.

Conventional precast concrete conduits for earth dams are fixed with prestressed concrete (PC) steel or bolts at the joints. This leads to problems of ground-following performance and water leakage, which severely hinders the performance of these installations and the wider infrastructure of which they form a part. In this study, a new type of precast concrete conduit without PC steel or bolts is developed. The following three issues are considered in the development of the new conduits: (1) the likelihood of not only bending but also lateral misalignment at the joints between conduits; (2) the likelihood of joint separation during earthquakes, especially when the conduit is subjected to axial shaking; and (3) the likelihood of leakage under bent and elongated conditions. Each issue is verified through settlement experiments, a shaking-table test, and watertightness tests. Two types of countermeasure are proposed to suppress lateral misalignment, and new precast concrete conduits with a flexible joint structure and higher watertightness than conventional ones are developed.

The failure of one pipeline may compromise the integrity of adjacent pipelines, especially for closely spaced parallel pipelines. This paper presents a series of multipoint shaking table tests of parallel double pipelines, which were installed in sand beds with three different spacing values to assess the effect of spacing on the seismic response of parallel pipelines. The acceleration and strain data were collected during the shaking tests. The results demonstrated that the acceleration response of soil between the two pipelines under uniform and nonuniform excitation was relatively lower than that of the pipelines due to the influence of the adjacent double pipelines, especially for the nonuniform excitation case. The maximum peak strain values of both pipelines gradually increased as the spacing between them increased under uniform excitation at lower loading intensity. However, for nonuniform excitations and uniform excitation of higher loading intensity, the maximum peak strain of pipelines with spacing of 150 mm was smaller than that with spacing of 100 and 200 mm. These results indicate that the combination of different pipeline spacings and nonuniform excitation could make the pipeline dynamic response more complicated, which should be properly considered in the seismic design of parallel double pipelines.

This paper presents an experimental and numerical analysis of the uplift resistance of pipelines buried in reinforced soil. The behavior of the system is studied using a set of laboratory experiments. The pull-out forces of some reinforcing pipelines are the most important factors affecting the uplift resistance. Buried elements such as pipelines that have high pressure fluids or are under high temperature need to be reinforced in order to increase their pull-out resistance. One of the efficient methods of reinforcement is increasing the involvement between pipe and soil by using geogrids and anchors. The grid-anchor is a recent method for increasing the pull-out resistance of soil, and is the method used in this study. The digital image correlation or particle image velocimetry (DIC/PIV) method is used for measuring the displacement in the field of experimental mechanism. We also examined the influence of parameters affecting the soil. An experimental study was performed to investigate the uplift resistance of the pipelines buried in sand reinforced with this system. The experimental results demonstrate that, for the pipes with a diameter of 50 mm, the grid-anchor system of reinforcement can increase the uplift capacity 2.4 times compared with the conventional geogrid and 4 times compared with nonreinforced sand. In the numerical modeling, likewise, 23 experiments were back-analyzed using the software FLAC-3D. It became known that experimental tests compare well with the numerical results.

In view of the presence of a large amount of noise in the measured ultrasonic signals and the small contribution of existing filtering methods to the improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the band-stop filtering method of the combining functions of the Butterworth and Hann windows (B–H band-stop filtering method) to ultrasonic guided waves was developed by analyzing the spectral features of the ideal and measured ultrasonic signals after the discrete Fourier transform has been applied. Its application to a measured signal explained the B–H band-stop filtering method more clearly, and indicated the feasibility to maximum noise removal. The application of the method for structural-damage localization proved that the method had the advantages of greatly reducing noise; hence, the maximum value of the Wigner–Ville distribution (WVD) could be identified more easily and the localization accuracy was improved. Compared with the Butterworth band-stop filtering method and the extended Kalman filtering method, the B–H band-stop filtering method has the best characteristics in terms of improving the SNR of signals, the clarity of the WVD of the effective signals, and the damage-localization accuracy.

Liquefaction is a phenomenon that occurs in loose saturated granular soils during seismic loading. In this study, the control volume finite-element method (CVFEM) and local radial basis function-based differential quadrature (LRBF-DQ) method were used to evaluate the liquefaction of the saturated sand around the buried pipelines. Also, the effect of the presence of a trench with highly permeable coarse-grained soils was employed to reduce the liquefaction potential. The results showed that the LRBF-DQ method requires less time to solve the governing equations and, therefore, is a more suitable method for estimating the liquefaction around the pipelines. The difference in the solving time of the two approaches increases with increasing the earthquake duration and decreasing pipeline burial depth. The sensitivity analysis showed that the earthquake duration, burial depth, and radius of the pipeline are the most critical factors affecting the analysis time, respectively. Besides, the presence of a trench with higher permeability materials can significantly decline the liquefaction potential of the soil and reduce the uplift of the pipeline.

Sustainable and effective management of urban sewerage networks (USNs) require relevant, appropriate, and effective decision support tools. This article proposes an innovative decision-making methodology, namely, the fuzzy failure modes, effects, and criticality analysis (FMECA) method, based on the fuzzy logic of risk, severity, and detectability indexes as defined in FMECA. Fuzzy-FMECA is based on rules that connect the concepts of inductive reasoning, logical implications for inferred knowledge of USNs using linguistic or numerical descriptions of the risk, gravity, and detectability indexes. The application of the proposed methodology to a practical case study of the USN of Oued M’Kacel in the city of Algiers, Algeria, proves its effectiveness. Furthermore, the performance of USNs from the proposed fuzzy-FMECA is compared to the performance from FMECA. The results show that the fuzzy-FMECA method can help sewerage managers assess the rehabilitation and prioritization of USNs in a more effective way.

Natural gas transmission networks (NGTNs) are the main facility connecting upstream gas sources and downstream consumers. For a cyclic NGTN with multiple gas transmission routes, different gas transportation schemes will affect not only the energy consumption of the system but also the pipeline transportation costs paid by consumers. In this paper, three operation optimization models are established to determine the optimal operating state of a multiroute cyclic NGTN under different scenarios. The three mathematical models correspond to three different objective functions: minimize the cost of compressor energy consumption, minimize the expense of pipeline transportation, and minimize the sum of the two expenses. The decision variables of the models include the pipeline flow rate, the number of operating compressors, and the outlet pressure of the compressors. In addition, a series of linear and nonlinear constraints of nodes, pipelines, and compressors is also proposed to guarantee the feasibility of solutions. The operation optimization problem is solved by the General Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS), and the effectiveness of this method is tested on a small double-route cyclic NGTN and a large three-route cyclic NGTN. The results show that the developed optimization model is able to find optimal solutions under different models. In the cyclic network, the difference in the flow distribution of gas transmission routes is the key factor affecting the optimization result. In addition, compared with the compressor energy consumption cost minimization objective, the pipeline transportation expense minimization objective can create greater economic benefits for consumers. In the two network cases, consumers can save 14.51 and ${59.18\times 10}^4$ RMB. Finally, optimizing the two objectives at the same time makes it possible to achieve an effective balance between them.

Ground subsidence may occur around deteriorated sewer pipes because of groundwater and soil infiltration into the pipes. Since field measurements are difficult to perform, it is important to use laboratory models to examine the effect of groundwater infiltration into perforated sewer systems. In the present research, a series of laboratory experiments were conducted in order to explore the impact of groundwater intrusion into a leaky sewer pipeline on ground deformation. In addition, the water and soil flow rates through the defective pipe were studied. For this purpose, a cracked pipe was tested in a sandbox model for different round opening sizes, water table depths, soil particle sizes, and hole positions along the pipe. It was found that hole size and location along the pipe, groundwater table height, and soil type had significant effects on the maximum depth of the depression hole and its width. Protecting pipelines exposed to subsidence in the field is very important. In order to predict the dimensions of depression holes around actual defective pipes, empirical formulas were developed based on dimensional analysis theory to compute the maximum depths and widths of depression holes. Then, preventive measures can be implemented to protect such pipes.

Buried steel pipelines see wide use in municipal, industrial, and power plant settings. Methodologies exist for evaluating buried smooth-wall steel pipes for external loading such as soil load and live load, which have been successfully used for decades. This paper reviews the existing methodologies, demonstrates the robust external load capacity of buried steel piping, and also gives several design tables and charts to rapidly increase the speed with which buried smooth-wall steel pipelines may be designed. Similar to buried polyethylene piping, where the American Water Works Association has identified a Basic Installation (previously called the Design Window) allowing for minimal calculations on such pipe, the author identifies similar conditions for buried steel piping where calculations can be minimized or omitted.

Fire water and foam distribution systems are installed in every petroleum installation worldwide. But so far, their adequate installation practices are not sufficiently complied with, possessing high limitations for the smooth operability of these systems by firefighters, possessing severe risk to their lives. In this study, the common problems and concerns associated with the fire water and firefighting foam systems installed for the protection of aboveground atmospheric bulk petroleum product storage tanks are critically analyzed. The study provides more efficient and practical solutions in compliance with field practitioners’ recommendations and international standard guidelines, addressing the problems associated with the design, erection, and safe operation of the petroleum storage facility. The shortcomings that arose in the designing and erection phases of the firefighting systems are identified. These shortcomings typically make the systems unsafe concerning operability. The conclusions reveal a noteworthy clarification regarding the conservation of distancing, optimizing the equipment installation elevation, acquainting with the fire-safety wall separations, equipment design orientations, foremost equipment inspection, compatible valve assembly installation, accessibility, radiant heat protection arrangements, fire water reusability optimization, and gravity-based used fire water disposal arrangements for different fire-safety installations.

This case history pertains to three horizontal directional drilling bores that were advanced under streams and are in close proximity to or beneath three bridges. During construction, optical surveys were performed to assess movements of the bridge structures, pavements, and other features above and near the bore alignment. The survey documented downward movements of as much as 19.8 and 12.8 mm heave, and 10.1 mm lateral displacement. The mud pressure in the bore was not measured, but the calculated minimum mud pressure needed for circulation varied from 32 to 219 kPa. The limiting mud pressures to avoid soil failure and unintended release of mud varied from 57 to 561 kPa. Differential movements in both vertical and lateral directions between points on the concrete deck, abutments, and wing walls of the three bridges were observed. Differential movements were also observed between points on pavements. During the advancement of the bore, the direction of the vertical movements fluctuated between heave (upward movement) and downward movement. The lateral movements in the N-S and E-W directions fluctuated as well along the N-S and E-W axes. Because some points moved in different directions at practically the same time, the differential movements in both the vertical and lateral directions exceeded the total. Published analytical relationships are summarized to establish a framework for predicting movements. While the validity of such relationships was not confirmed, as actual measured mud pressure was not known, the relationships seem to be approximate predictors based on the assumed minimum and maximum mud pressures required for circulation and the empirically determined strength properties. It is concluded that movement during construction is at least as critical to bridge performance as is postconstruction settlement. It is also concluded that to test predictive equations, actual mud pressures in the bore must be monitored. The collected data will be useful in future research on developing methods for estimating the movements and response of structures such as bridges to directional drilling.

Oil and gas revenues play an important role in the Iranian economy and are the main source of government spending and a major part of commodity exports. Therefore, safe transport of these products by pipelines and risk assessment are of great importance. The objective of this study was to determine the parameters affecting risk, assess the risks of urban gas transmission lines and gas transmission equipment, and identify high-risk areas to prioritize control measures. Risk assessment was performed using the Kent Muhlbauer method on a 19-km pipeline. The studied pipeline was divided into 94 separate sections. To calculate the relative risk, the index sum and leakage impact factor were used. The range of risks was classified into five areas: very high (0–1), high (1–2), medium (2–3), low (3–4), and very low (4–5). The average risk score for all 94 items was 2.92. The results indicated that 58.5% of the risks were moderate. The highest relative risk score was 1.67, whereas the minimum risk score was 4.19. According to the results, focusing on corrosion index and increasing the score of this index can be one of the important priorities for implementing control programs and maintenance measures.

In this paper, pipeline abnormal events (hydrate blockage and pipeline leakage) were detected by an active acoustic excitation method based on pulse compression. The positions of pipeline abnormal events were determined by time delay between emitted and reflected signals. Besides, in order to effectively distinguish the two detection signals, the empirical mode decomposition (EMD) method was used to obtain the intrinsic mode function (IMF) of the detection signal, and the normalized energy of all IMF components was used as eigenvector to input to the support vector machine (SVM) classifier for classification. The experiment results demonstrated that the trained models could accurately classify hydrate blockage and pipeline leakage after adjusting the classification threshold by the Youden index. The evaluation indicators including accuracy, precision, recall, specificity, and F1-score were 100% and area under curve (AUC) was 1 in testing set.

Utility conflicts are a primary cause of construction project delays. To mitigate delays, utility coordination is necessary. Existing utility coordination and communication studies lack an interactive method. This study aims to develop a method for utility coordination and utility conflict management that engages the utility owners early in the project development process to mitigate utility relocation delays. This study contributes to utility coordination by addressing the identified gap of improved incorporation of utility coordination processes into a project. This study provides and tests an interactive communication and model—utility relocation concept plan (URCP)—to develop utility conflict mitigation approaches that are agreeable between the utility owner, project owner, and contractor. URCP is a streamlined utility coordination technique and model that can be used in conjunction with current utility conflict management techniques in the industry. To the authors’ knowledge, a URCP is not currently in use in the industry outside of Kiewit Construction Corporation, nor is a URCP presented in the literature. The development of the URCP facilitates interactive visual discussions between the engineer, contractor, and utility owner. This interaction allows the relocations to be designed by all parties as well as provides advanced notification to the utility owners. Case study analysis revealed that when a URCP was utilized as a utility coordination tool, the amount of time it took to mitigate utility conflicts was reduced by 14.77%. Further research would be required to determine the viability of the URCP method in other geographic areas and other project delivery systems outside of design-build delivery projects.