Journal of Construction Engineering and Management

Developing energy-efficient commercial buildings requires the use of an energy-related risk management practice that can increase the chance of achieving intended lifecycle financial goals. This paper suggests a management practice that deals with such energy-related risk, namely, project cost risk and performance risk. A prerequisite to applying the suggested management practice is a high level of collaboration among different disciplines during design development as promoted, for example, when using integrated project delivery (IPD). As a case study to validate the management practice, this paper presents a California hospital project where the unique features of IPD helped the project team apply the management practice in the course of managing the energy-related uncertainties of an energy-efficiency measure. This paper illustrates the detailed design decision-making process of the team that used Target Value Design, a lean design management method. As a contribution to the body of knowledge, the purposes of this study are to present the case study that serves to validate the suggested practice and to show that the IPD application contributed to the capability and effectiveness of the practice in increasing the reliability of achieving the target lifecycle financial values while reducing system complexity and overdesign.

This paper examines environmental impact, costs, and social impacts comparing four construction techniques commonly used in the installation of underground utility infrastructure. The three impact factors are quantified to develop an overall underground sustainability index rating (USIR) for evaluating utility projects with competing installation technologies. The main contribution to the overall body of knowledge is the demonstration of a method for calculating a sustainability index that enables decision makers to quantify public works utility projects with guidance for evaluating proposed technologies based on environmental impact, costs, and social impact criteria. The aim is to help change the myopic thought process of typical public works owners who typically base contractor selection on lowest cost, rather than examining sustainability factors. An emission calculator was used in this research to quantify environmental impact by comparing six airborne emissions: carbon dioxide (${\mathrm{CO}}_2$), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxide (${\mathrm{NO}}_{\mathrm{x}}$), sulfur oxide (${\mathrm{SO}}_{\mathrm{x}}$), and hydrocarbons (HC). Costs were determined by estimating competing technology options including surface restoration. Social impacts were quantified by comparing and rating 13 factors affecting underground utility projects. The approach to calculating the USIR was demonstrated on a case study installation of 313 m (1,026 linear feet) of 400 mm (16 in.) PVC sanitary sewer in a mature neighborhood in Portland, Oregon. The USIRs were compared for open-cut, pilot tube microtunneling, horizontal directional drilling, and vacuum microtunneling technology options.

Construction operations are highly energy-intensive and account for significant environmental impacts, including greenhouse gases (GHG) and other engine exhaust associated with material procurement/delivery and on-site construction activities. The opportunities for mitigating air pollutant emissions from construction operations can be captured by estimating and benchmarking during the preconstruction phase and then monitoring during the construction phase. However, a formal process model to manage the environmental aspects of on-site construction activities has yet to be clearly delineated, although recently several research efforts have appeared in relevant areas such as the development of in-use emission factors of construction equipment, methods for reliably estimating emissions at the project level, embodied carbon footprint benchmarking methods, and practical monitoring tools. Such a lack of a formal process model causes the misinterpretation of the benefits from recent research efforts in each area and hinders their implementation in practice. In this context, this paper aims to establish a framework model that could be a systematic and generic reference to the management of pollutant emissions from construction operations with state-of-the-art methods and tools. To do so, the paper identifies a generic process to be supported by research efforts in each area and presents an integrated framework based on the analysis of data connectivity between processes. An example of the indirect emission measurement is presented to demonstrate how data connectivity can be ensured between processes within the framework.

On-site sanitation systems experience a high failure rate with resulting environmental and public health implications. In the United States alone, the EPA estimates that 10% of the 26 million homes served by on-site systems have failed. If this failure rate is extrapolated to the 8% of the global population that the UN estimates have gained access to sanitation between 1990 and 2008, an additional 5 million failed systems have been constructed. To address issues like this, development theory currently emphasizes a blend of hardware (e.g., infrastructure, technology) and software (e.g., knowledge, institutions, education) in an effort to achieve sustainable development. However, there is a lack of both theory that addresses this interaction and a definition of sustainable infrastructure. To begin to address this gap, an initial set of 40 factors that may contribute to sustainable on-site sanitation systems was identified from a literature review including the Web of Science, the Engineering Village, and the full record of ASCE from 2000 to July 2011. A panel of 14 experts including academics, regulators, international development practitioners, operation and maintenance (O&M) providers, and manufacturer/designers was then assembled to identify any additional factors that may lead to resilient on-site systems and to evaluate each one using the Delphi method. The panel evaluated each factor iteratively to develop a measure of its importance to the sustainability of on-site sanitation infrastructure. Experts were also invited to provide and review comments explaining or discussing the ratings they provided, and to identify the factors they perceived to be the most and least important. Of the initial list of factors, nine came to consensus as being important or very important, including factors such as owner occupancy, quality of installation or materials, and postconstruction follow-up programs. In addition, 10 factors provoked particularly diverse, or contentious, opinions with ratings that more than doubled the target criteria for consensus. These contentious factors are analyzed to identify trends and debates in expert opinion that showcase future research needs as well as issues that practitioners must address to build sustainable systems.

High-performance green buildings, which maximize energy efficiency and indoor environmental quality, require increased collaboration among interdisciplinary professionals during project delivery. Recent theoretical and applied research illuminates the critical role of delivery attributes in performance outcomes. Despite such evidence, rigorous research is still needed to establish links between delivery attributes and performance outcomes in sustainable projects to further motivate owners and project teams to adopt and successfully implement sustainable practices and eventually improve actual energy performance and indoor environmental quality of buildings. This paper used quantitative methods to identify statistically correlated in-process indicators with project performance outcomes such as green level, cost, and schedule in sustainable building project delivery. The sample set used data from two previous studies totaling 51 green-certified building projects. Results yield statistically significant corresponding weightings for 7 to 15 in-process indicators for sustainable building project delivery including setting owner-initiated sustainable goals, having all major project parties attending design charrettes, running energy and lighting simulations no later than the schematics-design phase, adequacy in owner capabilities for scope definition and decision making, selecting contractors from a restrained pool, and enabling contractor involvement in the delivery process no later than the design-development phase. This paper contributes to the body of knowledge by offering statistical evidence underlining the importance of in-process indicators for sustainable building project performance outcomes and proving insights to elevate team integration through the delivery process.

A rating system is introduced that employs life-cycle analysis techniques to provide a quantitative assessment of the environmental and economic sustainability of highway designs. Energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, life-cycle cost, and other factors are considered. On the basis of the score received, a design is assigned a label commensurate with the level of sustainability achieved. Analysis of a pilot project shows that relatively modest changes in a highway pavement design, such as using recycled materials, results in significant environmental and economic benefits. The system can be used to motivate material recycling, resulting in more sustainable construction and growth.

Construction activities generate large amounts of differing emissions, including particulate matter (PM). These particles are of various aerodynamic diameters—between 10 and 2.5 μm (${\mathrm{PM}}_{10–2.5}$), or coarse particulates, and smaller than 2.5 μm (${\mathrm{PM}}_{2.5}$), or fine particulates. Coarse particulates are more commonly associated with fugitive dust releases, whereas fine particulates are generally from the combustion of fossil fuels. The combination of construction equipment and diesel fuel combustion emissions and excavated and then exposed earth on a construction site is of particular concern with respect to PM emissions. This research developed a life-cycle assessment model to quantitatively evaluate PM emissions at different scales. An illustrative case study is used to explore the excavation phase of an urban high-rise. The excavation phase includes excavation and hauling of soil, mobilizing and demobilizing of equipment, workers commuting, delivery of fuel, handling of soil at the soil disposal site and the nonregional activities of equipment manufacturing, and the production and distribution of fuels. The emissions generated at the excavation site accounted for 23% of ${\mathrm{PM}}_{10–2.5}$ and 13% of $\mathrm{P}{\mathrm{M}}_{2.5}$ total life-cycle emissions by location, whereas the emissions generated over roadways accounted for 59 and 77% of total life-cycle ${\mathrm{PM}}_{10–2.5}$ and ${\mathrm{PM}}_{2.5}$, respectively. The remaining emissions by location were generated at the soil disposal site and outside of the regional boundary. The majority of regional ${\mathrm{PM}}_{10–2.5}$ (89%) and ${\mathrm{PM}}_{2.5}$ (90%) emissions were a direct result of soil-hauling activities. The results present a case for further discussion and analysis of the impacts of hauling soil on regional human health.

Buildings in the United States account for 40% of the national annual energy consumption, 39% of carbon footprint, and 13% of water consumption. To minimize these negative environmental impacts and improve life-cycle cost performance, an increasing number of public and private owners are requiring that their existing and new buildings incorporate more sustainable building measures. Despite the recent increase in the use of these sustainable building measures, there is a pressing need to explore their actual operational performance. This paper presents the findings of a recent study that evaluated the performance of sustainable measures in public buildings, such as rest areas, including energy efficient fluorescent and LED lights, solar photovoltaic systems and water heaters, daylight tubes, geothermal heat pumps, wind power technology, motion-activated lighting, double-pane glass, energy-efficient hand dryers, water-conserving fixtures, rain gardens, and graywater systems. The study conducted a comprehensive survey of state departments of transportation (DOTs) to gather and analyze personnel’s experiences in implementing various green measures in their buildings. A total of 30 state DOTs in the United States participated in the survey in addition to one response from the Ontario Ministry of Transportation in Canada. The primary contributions this research makes to the body of knowledge are the new knowledge it provides on the actual operational performance of various green building measures in state DOT buildings including the frequency of their use, user satisfaction, ease of maintenance, encountered problems, repair costs, reductions in electricity/water usage, and payback periods. While there are different ways of evaluating the performance of the green measures, this study concentrates on the feedback and experiences of the personnel who have actually implemented these green measures in their facilities. These important findings based on user experiences on the performance of building measures are useful to both researchers and professionals in the construction industry and will contribute to better selection and use of these measures toward improving building sustainability.

Massive concrete dam projects will be constructed in the next 10 years to respond to the increasing demand for clean energy and water resources in developing countries. Because of their ample use of cement, these projects have a significant environmental impact, including the production of carbon dioxide (${\mathrm{CO}}_2$) emissions. Rock-filled concrete (RFC) is an innovative dam construction method that promises better environmental performance than conventional concrete (CC) in the material production stage by saving a large amount of cement. However, the environmental loads throughout the entire life cycle of a dam must be quantified. Thus, this paper aims to evaluate the environmental loads in the lifetime of a dam and reveal the environmental impact of RFC relative to CC over the entire life cycle of a concrete dam. Through reviewing the limitations of the existing life-cycle assessment (LCA) models, a hybrid LCA model is applied to achieve this goal. The results from a case study of a concrete dam project in China are presented to demonstrate the environmental benefit of RFC throughout the lifetime of a dam. The results indicate that RFC reduces greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 64% and energy consumption by approximately 55% compared with CC. With regard to each life cycle stage, RFC decreased the ${\mathrm{CO}}_2$ emissions by 72% in material production, 25% in transportation, 51% in construction, and 15.6% in operation and maintenance. The conclusion is that RFC is more environmentally responsible throughout the life cycle of a dam’s, and that the environmental benefit of RFC may help to encourage decision makers to select the appropriate methods in the planning phase.

Under the umbrella of a departmental initiative termed CM Cares, faculty from Colorado State University have developed a service-learning course to teach and implement concepts related to sustainability in construction education. The course has met with significant success and received recognition from community partners, elementary to graduate students, faculty members, and department and university administration. Beyond the positive response to experiential learning and community action, this paper uses data from the second course offering to assess the course’s effectiveness for teaching sustainability competencies. The writers implemented multiple techniques to collect data and assess perceived learning with regard to sustainability competencies. Techniques included surveys, reflection essays, and concept maps. Overall findings were mixed but suggest that significant learning about sustainability can occur using service-learning as a teaching technique in construction education despite (and perhaps because) students question the value of what they have learned and how to implement it. Specifically, students report increased appreciation of the challenges as well as benefits related to sustainability. The contribution of this paper is the successful application of community-based research constructs to a service-learning course case study to assess its effectiveness at developing key sustainability competencies. By documenting a successful case study, this paper supports future efforts to integrate sustainability into construction education, encourages further and similar course development, and provides a model for future service-learning assessment research.

Building regulations and governmental policies create pressure on the construction industry to minimize the environmental impacts that are caused by buildings. Achieving energy efficiency, and thereby low-carbon construction, is only possible by cooperation among the participants in the construction supply chain. Clients in particular have an important role in promoting environmental sustainability. In this paper, the carbon-reduction process is analyzed from a construction client’s perspective. A framework is developed to analyze the interrelated components of this process, including the drivers, initiatives, challenges, facilitators, solutions, and achievements. A qualitative case study methodology was employed to gain a better understanding of the project-based practices and corporate policies in achieving energy efficiency. The study presents the results of three award-winning construction projects from the U.K. in which innovations for improving environmental sustainability were based on the Code for Sustainable Homes. The study outlines the initiatives and strategies of clients for carbon reduction, obstacles faced by project teams, mechanisms that helped overcome the difficulties, and low-carbon solutions applied to design, construction, and operation in the selected cases. Effective leadership, corporate responsibility, a focus on end users, repeatable nature of projects, and integrated teams are found to be the main success factors. The findings of this study are expected to guide construction professionals in implementing innovative low-carbon practices in collaborative project environments. The proposed framework can be used to better understand the carbon-reduction process in other projects and other countries where different regulations and conditions prevail.

Making U.S. infrastructure more sustainable by reducing long-term infrastructure costs is a stated goal of the U.S. EPA. A case study of a small development in northern Colorado used both life-cycle cost (LCC) and environmental life-cycle assessment (LCA) to better exemplify how this goal might be attained and also provide environmental benefits. By choosing community-scale technology (CST) for wastewater treatment application, the developer obviated the need to construct 10.46 km of main sewer line needed to connect to an existing centralized wastewater treatment facility. By eliminating the need for the 10.46 km main sewer line, the LCC, global warming potential from greenhouse gasses, energy use, and hazardous waste creation and disposal were reduced significantly. In the future, the use of CST in redevelopment planning for shrinking cities may have additional benefits to area residents and landowners. This work is significant to decision makers in the wastewater treatment community for two reasons. First, it provides alternatives for sewer districts to consider in the design phase of new and redevelopment projects that could impact scope, first costs, and LCC, all of which flow through to the user in a fee structure. Second, it is the first study using LCC and LCA to focus on sustainability considerations of wastewater infrastructure in shrinking cities and redevelopment applications.