Journal of Composites for Construction

This paper provides a comparison and evaluation of the current test methods used to determine the strength of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bent bars/stirrups at the bend location (bend strength). The available methods depend on applying tensile forces through the straight portion of the bent bar/stirrup and keeping the bend zone restrained to generate a stress perpendicular to the bend direction in addition to the stress in the longitudinal direction. This could be achieved through the ACI 440.3R-04 B.12 test method for U-shaped bare FRP bars. Another possible method is the ACI 440.3R-04 B.5 which evaluates the bend strength of FRP stirrups by embedding them in two concrete blocks, which are pushed apart until the rupture of the FRP bent bars. Both methods were employed in testing FRP stirrups and bent bars and the bend strength was compared. The test results showed that the ACI 440.3R-04 B.12 test method consistently underestimates the bend strength of FRP stirrups. On the other hand, B.5 test method is more reliable and representative to the actual state of stresses in real concrete structural elements.

In this study, numerical procedures are proposed to predict the structural behavior of concrete members strengthened with fiber-reinforced polymeric (FRP) sheets or plates. The concept of damage band or crack band is introduced and used for predicting the debonding failure of the concrete-epoxy interface formed when FRP sheets or plates are externally bonded to a concrete substrate. In the crack band approach, all the processes taking place during the failure of a concrete-epoxy interface are smeared in a band of fixed width. This makes the approach attractive from a modeling point of view since continuum theories, along with softening relations, can be used to model the damage which causes debonding of the interface. In order to validate this approach, numerical predictions, using the concept of crack band, are compared against experimental results obtained from tests of concrete blocks and reinforced concrete beams strengthened with FRP. In particular, the capability of the proposed numerical approach to predict the load-displacement response, strain distributions, failure sequences, damage distribution, and failure mechanisms experimentally observed is verified. Results presented in this study indicate that the concept of crack band is appropriate when modeling concrete-epoxy interfaces under general states of stresses.

The cyclic behavior of eight 0.4-scale reinforced concrete column specimens is investigated. The columns incorporated deficient design details to simulate bridge columns built in Washington State prior to 1971. Two columns were tested as reference specimens, five were tested after retrofitting using carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP), and one was tested after retrofitting using a conventional steel jacket. All the specimens were tested under constant gravity load and incrementally increasing lateral loading cycles. The specimens had rectangular cross sections with aspect ratios of 1.5 and 2.0. The parameters investigated included the amount of CFRP reinforcement, different retrofitting jacket configurations, and different retrofitting materials. For the as-built specimens, two modes of failure occurred, namely low cyclic fatigue of longitudinal reinforcement and lap splice failure. For the retrofitted specimens, no lap splice failure was observed. All the retrofitted specimens failed due to low cyclic fatigue failure of the longitudinal bars. The retrofitting measures improved the displacement ductility, energy dissipation, and equivalent viscous damping. In addition, increasing the amount of CFRP reinforcement improved the performance of the test specimens.

This paper presents the main features of an analytical model recently developed to predict the near-surface mounted (NSM) fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) strips shear strength contribution to a reinforced concrete (RC) beam throughout the beam’s loading process. It assumes that the possible failure modes that can affect the ultimate behavior of an NSM FRP strip comprise: loss of bond (debonding); concrete semiconical tensile fracture; mixed shallow-semicone-plus-debonding; and strip tensile fracture. That model was developed by fulfilling equilibrium, kinematic compatibility, and constitutive law of both the adhered materials and the bond between them. The debonding process of an NSM FRP strip to concrete was interpreted and closed-form equations were derived after proposing a new local bond stress-slip relationship. The model proposed also addressed complex phenomena such as the interaction between the force transferred to the surrounding concrete through bond stresses and concrete fracture as well as the interaction among adjacent strips. The main features of the proposed modeling strategy are shown along with the main underlying physical-mechanical concepts and assumptions. Using recent experimental data, the predictive performance of the model is assessed. The model is also applied to single out the influence of relevant parameters on the NSM technique effectiveness for the shear strengthening of RC beams.

A considerable amount of research has been directed recently toward understanding and promoting the use of externally applied fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) for the seismic retrofit of reinforced concrete (RC) structures. In this paper, a comprehensive review and synthesis of published experimental studies on the seismic rehabilitation of RC frame beam-column joints with FRP is presented, and the issues that need to be addressed for further research are discussed. In addition, the paper presents a simple design model for predicting the contribution of the FRP to the shear strength of retrofitted joints. The key element in the model is the derivation of an expression for the effective FRP strain, based on the calibration of test data reported in the literature. A total of 54 tests carried out worldwide were considered in the review, and a database of the published studies, encompassing all relevant design parameters, was assembled. The reported test results confirm the structural effectiveness of the FRP strengthening technique for the seismic retrofit of RC joints. However, there are some gaps which need to be addressed. For instance, there is a lack of a rationale explanation of the resistance mechanisms involved in the beam-column joints retrofitted with FRP. Such a rational explanation is a prerequisite for the development of more comprehensive and rigorous design procedure.

This paper focuses on axially loaded, large-scale rectangular RC columns confined with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) wrapping. Experimental tests are conducted to obtain the stress-strain response and ultimate load for three field-size columns having different aspect ratios and/or corner radii. Effective transverse FRP failure strain and the effect of increasing confining action on the stress-strain behavior are examined. Existing strength models, the majority of which were developed for small-scale specimens, are applied to predict the structural response. Since some of them fail to adequately characterize the test data and others are complex and require significant calculation, a simple design-oriented model is developed. The new model is based on the confinement effectiveness coefficient, an aspect ratio coefficient, and a corner radius coefficient. It accurately predicts the axial ultimate strength of the large-scale columns at hand and, when applied to the small-scale columns studied by other investigators, produces reasonable results.

The research presented in this study involves full-scale experimental evaluation of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) rehabilitation for existing beam-column joints designed for gravity load with common pre-1970s deficient reinforcement details when subjected to cyclic loading. Numerous studies have demonstrated effectiveness of externally bonded fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) materials for retrofitting the deteriorating RC structures. Although these materials are widely used in bridges, their applications in buildings have been somewhat limited. In particular, the experimental investigations on external FRP retrofit of deficient beam-column joints have not thoroughly been investigated and they are mainly on scaled-down specimens. The failure of these subassemblies, which possess lack of shear reinforcement within the joint core and shortly embedded positive beam reinforcement, would possibly result in catastrophic collapse of reinforced concrete frame structure during an earthquake event. Recognizing the urgent need to upgrade these structural subassemblies, the current investigation uses CFRP retrofit techniques to enhance the performance of such deficient joints. Experimental variables studied entail the developed CFRP retrofit configurations, and magnitude of the applied column axial load. Comparative analysis of the lateral loads versus drift hysteresis loops, stiffness degradation, and total dissipated energy curves of three as-built and three corresponding CFRP-retrofitted RC joints revealed that significant improvement in the shear capacity of the upgraded joints occurred. More importantly, the slippage of short embedded beam positive reinforcement into the joint was substantially controlled due to the developed CFRP retrofit. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of CFRP retrofit configurations in enhancing the structural performance of actual size connections.

Deterioration of concrete structures caused by corrosion of reinforcing steel, aging, and weathering is a major problem in harsh environments such as coastal areas and cold regions. In addition, a hot environment, such as in the Arabian Gulf, is recognized as one of the most severe and aggressive environments that affects concrete durability. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of strengthening plain concrete cylinders, subjected to extreme temperature variations, by wrapping with two layers of unidirectional carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets. Thirty-six plain concrete cylinders $\left(150\times 300\text{mm}\right)$ were tested. Nine specimens served as unstrengthened controls and the remaining cylinders were strengthened with two layers of CFRP sheets. Cylinders were subjected to high temperatures $\left(45°\text{C}\right)$ , to heating and cooling cycles (23 to $45°\text{C}$ ), and to prolonged heat exposure $\left(45°\text{C}\right)$ . Some of the cylinders that were subjected to heating and cooling, were later subjected to freezing and thawing cycles, while others were submerged in fresh water or salt water. The specimens were loaded to failure under uniaxial compressive load and the axial and lateral deformations were monitored. High temperature exposure was not found to decrease the strength of the wrapped concrete cylinders.

Most of the experimental studies available in literature on the seismic assessment and retrofit of existing, poorly detailed, reinforced concrete (RC) beam-column joints, typical of pre-1970s construction practice, have concentrated on the two-dimensional (2D) response, using unidirectional cyclic loading testing protocol and constant axial load. Even more limited information is available on the performance of exterior (corner) three-dimensional (3D) RC beam-column joints with substandard detailing subjected to bidirectional loading regime. In this study, the results of a comprehensive experimental program is presented, aiming to show the effects of varying axial and bidirectional loading on the seismic performance of deficient exterior RC beam-column joints before and after retrofit. Ten exterior beam-column joint subassemblies are tested, including four as-built specimens and six retrofitted specimens using externally bonded glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) sheets. Test results are herein presented and conclusions are drawn on the basis of the observed global and local performance. The significance of the triaxial interaction of varying axial and bidirectional loading effects on the response of retrofitted corner joints is confirmed by the experimental findings. The proposed retrofit solution was shown to be capable of re-establishing an appropriate hierarchy of strength within the subassembly, protecting the panel zone region from shear failure while promoting the formation of a plastic hinge in the beam.

Presented in this paper is a study to show that the Hart-Smith semiempirical modeling approach can be used to predict the net-tension strength of multirowed bolted connections of pultruded material. Using the original 1987 paper by Hart-Smith a strength equation is developed for the specific connection configuration of two rows with a centrally placed steel bolt. The reported equation can be directly used for the two orientations of material that have the tension load parallel or perpendicular to the direction of pultrusion. Using experimental measurements for material properties and single-bolted connections from Rosner’s 1992 work and the open-hole tension strengths from Turvey and Wang’s 2003 paper, representative values to the modeling parameters in the strength equation are established. For model verification a comparison is made between theoretical and experimental strengths, using 17 test results from Hassan et al.’s 1997a work. Only two of the 17 experimental-to-theory strength ratios are $<1.0$ , and only one of these two could be said to have predicted unsafe net-tension strengths. With none of the ratios exceeding 1.2, it is seen that the simple and versatile modeling approach gives very acceptable predictions. To determine the modeling parameters that will enable the Hart-Smith approach to be in a load resistance factor design standard there is a need for a comprehensive series of strength tests, for net-tension failure with filled- and open-holes, that covers the complete range of multirowed bolted connections that is to be permitted by the standard.

In this study, six glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) cantilevered tubular poles were tested in flexure. Four poles were filled with varying amounts of concrete; within 13, 30, 51, and 72% of their lengths, from the fixed point. Two poles, namely, a hollow and a totally concrete-filled tubes, were also tested as control specimens. The filament-wound prismatic tubes were 3,660 mm long, including a 700 mm clamped length at the fixed end, with a 220 mm outer diameter, and 4.15 mm wall thickness. The study aims at increasing flexural strength of thin-walled GFRP tubular poles by using a small amount of concrete at the vicinity of maximum moment near the base. Test results showed that flexural strength increases as the length of concrete fill is increased, until it reaches a plateau corresponding to about double the strength of the hollow tube, when the concrete fill is about one third of the clear length. This is considered the optimal condition for this tube that provides the largest strength-to-weight ratio. Poles with a shorter filling length failed prematurely, by a combined local buckling and crushing of the hollow part, while poles with a longer filling length failed at the base by rupture of the tube in tension. An analytical model was developed, validated, and used in a parametric study. The correlations between the optimal filling length ratio and both “diameter-to-thickness” ratio, and laminate structure of the tube, have been demonstrated for both angle-ply and cross-ply tubes.

This study intends to provide a simplified analytical model of the laterally confined concrete filled steel tube (CCFT) column system which adopts carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) jackets in order to make up for major defects of the traditional concrete filled steel tube (CFT) column system. This CCFT analytical model, by adding one additional parameter for CFRP confinement to the CFT column analytical solution, is greatly simplified and expedites the analytical processes to explain the stress-strain relationship of the CCFT column system. In the study, several types of the CCFT column systems with different parameters are analyzed by the proposed simplified analytical model and its associated numerical program (USC-CFT). To verify the accuracy of the analytical model, this study compares the load-strain relationship calculated by USC-CFT both to the experimental results conducted by the traditional method and to the results calculated by the computer-aided finite element method (FEM) analysis method. This study shows equilibrium conditions, deformation compatibilities, constitutive models, and an analysis procedure used in the proposed simplified analytical solution and presents finite element models and analysis procedure used in FEM analysis.