Journal of Architectural Engineering

Building performance optimization throughout the design–decision process has not been well defined, especially in holistic approaches that require multilevel integration. For this, it is essential to ensure coexistence between different analysis programs such as three-dimensional (3D), energy, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models that can be applied on a single platform such as building information modeling (BIM). This research aims, first, to define and document a holistic design approach to building performance optimization concerning energy usage by employing the BIM platform and, second, to underline interoperability and data exchange between current technology and commercially available software from different vendors. Therefore, the novelty of this study is to serve a systematic, multiobjective, and multicriterion optimization of building performance with a holistic approach in the BIM platform. The holistic design approach is for a multidisciplinary design process including three stages (conceptual, schematic, and detailed) that cover different optimization criteria (building envelope design, occupants’ comfort conditions, and building’ energy consumption). The proposed method aims to generate, evaluate, develop, and utilize a 3D model during the different design stages concerning the model’s level of details and included information, which underlines the usage of 3D model-related software and sharing data among the design stages. A BIM-based method is developed through the case study of a hypothetical, two-story building (domestic dwelling) by identifying the activities of each design stage. With the implementation of the proposed method, the result shows a predicted energy saving of up to 75%, with a detailed energy analysis placing the building energy performance in the “A” class (annual energy consumption 17,865 kW · h). At last, based on the authors’ experience during the study, it is time- and effort-saving to have interoperability between BIM tools.

Tower cranes are frequently used for installation of prefabricated modules and are on-demand resources in off-site construction. Tower cranes, however, are associated with many site accidents and severe injuries. Proper safety training that builds upon hazard perception of tower crane operators will help to increase safety performance and reduce site accidents. Toward this aim, the current study develops a framework that facilitates the development of context-aware safety training for lifting processes. This framework is then evaluated for its applicability by creating safety training scenarios using building information models (BIM) and virtual reality (VR). The resultant outcome from employment of the framework developed in this study is enhanced situational awareness of tower crane operators that allows them to anticipate risks in a fast-paced construction environment, thereby reducing the number of safety incidents and (lost time injuries) LTIs. This framework allows inexperienced contractors to adopt newer construction methods, such as off-site prefabrication, by mitigating safety risks with context-aware training.

This study focuses on the effect of opening on the performance of bamboo-reinforced concrete wall panels subjected to one-way in-plane action. The study evaluates the performance of six bamboo-reinforced concrete wall panels, of which three are solid wall panels and the remaining three specimens are having an opening at its center. All the prototype specimens were subjected to a uniformly distributed load that was applied at an eccentricity of 1/6 of its wall thickness. The specimens considered in this study had a constant slenderness ratio of 25, with varying aspect ratios and thinness ratios. The aspect ratio considered for the wall panels were 1, 1.20, and 1.52, and thinness ratios considered include 16.50, 20.75, and 25. The area of the opening provided was exactly 25% of the area of the specimen and was provided at the center of the specimen. The study reveals that the load-carrying capacity of a wall panel is dependent on its aspect ratio and thinness ratio. The ultimate load was found to decrease with an increase in aspect ratio, whereas it increased with increase in thinness ratio irrespective of the presence of the opening.

Many heritage buildings have chimney stacks of high architectural and cultural value. Most are built of brick or stone masonry, are often slender, and are prone to overturn even under slight quakes since undergoing great amplification of the seismic motion because of their position in the building. Notwithstanding thousands of chimney collapses during more or less recent earthquakes, causing considerable loss of cultural values and building damage, they remain one of the most disregarded nonstructural elements. This paper specifically addresses the analysis of the overturning mechanisms of chimney stacks to better know their vulnerability and provide a simple tool for their protection and conservation. The seismic behavior is studied through the displacement-based approach, considering the filtering effect due to the underneath building structure through floor response spectra. The main parameters influencing their seismic safety are also discussed. The procedure, applied to high chimney stacks of the Royal Palace of Carditello, built in 1787, is suitable for analyzing numerous historical masonry chimneys, to identify the most critical situations where it would be necessary to intervene in advance.

The hierarchy of a building is created from the hermeneutics aspects changing from a typology to a topology paradigm. As tall buildings are growing rapidly, engineering science is experiencing developments such as the finite-element method. The present research creates a platform for architects using the topology optimization method as an assistant designer. This platform serves as a starter for a common language of these two professions in the early stages of design. Architects can use this platform to produce the final topological optimized form by defining their shape plans, lateral loads, height, and the target ratio of models as platform inputs. This paper highlights the importance of the bidirectional evolutionary structural optimization method simultaneously in architectural and structural contexts to reduce the total weight of the structure while keeping the displacement of the structure in an acceptable range. The reduction will be made by eliminating the structural material zones with lower stress with an effective method for achieving the structural efficiency of a tall building, considering architectural aspects.

In high-occupancy intermittent buildings, such as mosques and theaters, it is challenging to design proper air distribution systems and HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning) operation strategies to maintain thermal comfort at reduced energy consumption. This study investigates the thermal and energy performance of a high-occupancy intermittently operated mosque in Saudi Arabia. DesignBuilder software (version v4.7) was used for the coupled energy and computational fluid dynamics simulations. The continuous HVAC operation results indicate an annual cooling energy consumption of 181 kW · h/m², with only two under-floor air distribution system models [through-wall supply with eight diffusers at 3 m height and ceiling return (M5) and through-wall supply with 10 diffusers at 3 m height and wall return at 3 m from the ground (M6)] achieving thermal comfort with only a few cold spots in the throw areas. The intermittent operation saved 30% of the total annual energy consumption, reducing it from 181 to 127 kW · h/m², in turn, saving 35% of the total cooling energy consumption. Intermittent HVAC operation cases achieved thermal comfort, except for the four-way ceiling supply and wall return (M1). Therefore, implementing intermittent HVAC operation strategies in high-occupancy buildings significantly reduces energy consumption, while achieving thermal comfort when appropriate air distribution strategies are employed. These results provide critical guidelines for the design and operation of proper HVAC systems.

This paper describes a computational framework that performs automated structural design of tall timber buildings at the resolution of conceptual design while considering typical loads and load combinations, material properties, and a set of architectural requirements. The framework is used to assess a range of tall timber geometries in terms of feasibility for different fire design approaches and structural systems. Based on constructed precedents, two structural systems are considered: a post–beam–panel system and a post-and-platform system. For these systems, a set of geometric parameters and variables are established to create a parametric design space, after which each geometry is subjected to structural analysis and structural design. The resulting design space contains significant diversity and can be used to assess the feasibility of the two considered structural systems for a range of geometries. The results show clear relationships between building height and the feasibility of using wood sections for lateral elements, as well as a positive relationship between the amount of structural material required and higher fire-resistance ratings, which can be interpreted in light of concern for embodied carbon.

Abstract

Considering the significant amount of time and money wasted yearly in fixing errors caused by miscommunication and inadequate information on project sites, relaying the knowledge of field experts through design software may reduce communication-based conflicts in projects. This study aimed to create a model to integrate human field expertise in the construction process with building information modeling (BIM) software. This study is based on the premise of the significance of human involvement in construction. Basement construction in Fargo, North Dakota, was the construction scenario selected for scrutiny in this study. Surveys and in-person interviews were conducted with local contractors to ascertain valuable recommendations and views on basement construction in Fargo. Information from these contractors was coded into models to offer warnings and recommendations on the assessed basement construction activities to help architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) professionals with design, planning, and other processes required before and during construction. Combining BIM (with all its proven strengths) with the human aspect of construction will significantly improve the construction process, especially in decision-making and risk mitigation.

Practical Applications

The models developed in this study can be a valuable asset to any construction personnel involved in planning, design, and other preconstruction processes. The models provide users with location-specific recommendations on building activities. Possession of this specialized knowledge can improve the decision-making process for risk mitigation. An in-depth knowledge of location-specific project risks and their associated remedies from the local field experts improves the chances of efficient project delivery. This study developed an innovative way of making field expertise available to architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) personnel who may not be conversant with the intricacies of new project locations. The results from this study indicate the existence of valuable human expertise in construction and the positive effects on project delivery if this expertise is properly utilized with available computing systems. The practicality of the developed models lies in their integration and usability with existing BIM software; therefore, this added knowledge can help mitigate risks and improve project success.

Fuzzy techniques are approximations used to model phenomena or decisions for which mathematical precision is impractical or impossible. In this work, we have developed a new approach to modeling visual performance using fuzzy techniques. Fuzzy techniques allow us to include variables that are not included in the current visual performance model. We also introduce the term critical contrast, which we define as the contrast at which a change in the rating of visual performance occurs. The comparison between our fuzzy relative visual performance model and the relative visual performance model shows close agreement for most conditions. A digital tool was also developed and is available for use. This will make the proposed metric simple to use and implement.

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels are an innovative wooden product that has gained popularity in recent years because it has a high strength-to-weight ratio, improves construction efficiency, and it is a natural and renewable material. Therefore, the recently released 2021 International Building Code (IBC) include guidelines for CLT panels for the construction of buildings of up to 18 stories. The construction applications of CLT panels as well as the research initiatives have largely centered on softwood tree species such as laminates, and the application of hardwood species has yet to be investigated. This paper documents the structural behavior of several hardwood species abundant in the Appalachian region and demonstrates the promising feasibility of using these species in the construction industry with CLT panels considering the architectural and structural behavior and economic aspects. The hardwood tree species selected are abundant in the Appalachian region and this paper highlights their potential as a construction material and provides an insight for future development. Three hardwood species including red maple, sweetgum, and sycamore are considered for this study, and three- and five-ply panels are fabricated to evaluate their behavior. The samples are tested in three directions for compression to understand the orthotropic behavior. Considering the softwood species including southern yellow pine and Douglas fir as a baseline for comparison, a total of 120 samples are tested and evaluated based on ASTM standards. The results show an average higher compressive strength from sweetgum panels followed by red maple, sycamore, Douglas fir, and southern yellow pine in the main directions used for structural walls. The findings imply a potential market for the underutilized hardwood species in Appalachia, which may lead to future economic development in the region.

Commercial rooftops provide extensive areas representing the desired platform for installing photovoltaic (PV) systems. The combination of roofing assembly and PV system is called photovoltaic roofing assembly (PVRA). Currently, there is a shortage of information about building codes on PV system and roofing assembly integration. The National Research Council of Canada (NRC) developed an industry consortium project to generate codifiable research data on the wind and thermal performances of photovoltaic roofing assemblies. This paper examines the thermal bridging of the PV mounting attachments and its impact on the overall thermal resistance of the roofing assembly. Seven different types of PV mounting fixed attachments were tested in this study. Thermal bridging evaluation of PV mounts was done on the component level as individual mounts were installed through a section of a roofing assembly. The roofing assemblies were designed for a prescriptive thermal resistance of RSI 5.46 m² K W⁻¹ (R-31 h ft² °F BTU⁻¹) as per current standard and requirements for Climate zones 4–6. The thermal bridging experiments were conducted on a 1.2 m by 1.2 m guarded hot box at a mean temperature of 24°C. The measured data indicated a decrease in the effective thermal resistance of the PVRA, ranging from 3.3% to 50.0%, compared to the opaque roofing assembly devoid of any thermal bridging. Furthermore, it was found that among fastener-designed PV mounting attachments, the greater the number of fasteners, the more significant the decrease in effective thermal resistance. From the experimental data, chi factors (χ) were developed to support the calculation of point thermal bridging effects on the thermal performance of low-sloped roofing assemblies. Toward codification, efforts are underway to potentially implement these chi factors in the energy codes that could enhance the thermal design of both retrofit and new roof constructions installed with photovoltaic systems.

In this paper, we present a proposal for a retrofit system for existing reinforced-concrete (RC) buildings consisting in the use of precast concrete panels, designed for improving both the structural and energetic performance. In particular, the proposed system is conceived to improve both the energetic efficiency, by ensuring high-performance thermal insulation, and the capacity of the structural elements under gravity and seismic loads. Firstly, a detailed description of the proposed technology is provided, which has been tested and assessed on a real-scale prototype. Then, the efficiency of the technique was explored by means of numerical simulations for both the energetic and structural performance. Although no experimental tests are available, the results of our numerical simulations and analyses on a real case-study building reveal interesting insights, highlighting the main pros and cons of the proposal and providing a possible retrofit solution for buildings that do not meet the current European code requirements.

Equipping unmanned aerial systems (UASs) with light detection and ranging (lidar) has been made possible with recent advancements, which has made these sensors compact and gradually more cost-effective. Despite the increased proliferation of UAS-lidar in several fields, the geometric accuracy of lidar-generated point clouds, together with their visual qualities, needs to be explored for building surveying applications. Considering that red−blue−green (RGB) cameras are the most prevalent UAS sensors in building surveying, a lidar- and an RGB camera-equipped UAS was deployed on a mixed infrastructure to simultaneously collect data and generate corresponding point clouds. Different geometric features from both RGB and lidar point clouds were measured and compared quantitatively against benchmark field observations. A qualitative analysis on the point clouds’ visual qualities was also performed and a sensor recommendation matrix was proposed based on desired application accuracy. Lidar has proven to be a viable alternative, providing better geometric accuracy, data quality, and clarity in all three dimensions.

Abstract

Architects and designers have employed angulated structures for kinetic architectural design due to their formal esthetics, geometry, and light weight. The arrangement of these structures within a regular repetitive (modular) layout forms a kinetic skin. Geometric patterns are repeated in angulated structures based on particular orders as happens in girih patterns in Iranian historical architecture. This similarity forms the base of this study. Given the importance of revitalizing these motifs due to the gap between the modern and traditional architecture and their modernization using up-to-date technologies, the authors propose a process for implementing these patterns on generated lattice structures. This study is organized into two parts to achieve the mentioned goals: in the first part, the effect of changing parameters on the ultimate form of lattice structure is evaluated. In the second part, changes are applied to the structural form according to the patterns through two strategies (i.e., implementing the pattern of girih components on the central opening of the structure and implementing the form of girih components on structural elements), focused on the Islamic girih patterns and the importance of their implementation on the structure. The outcome of this study is kinetic skins containing forms dominantly shapes of Iranian patterns repeated regularly throughout the structure; it represents the beauty and identity of the traditional Iranian architecture and can adapt to changing conditions according to the purposes of sustainable architecture. Finally, a designed structure is modeled and analyzed using the Ansys software in order to investigate the constructability of a full-scale structure and evaluate it under loads in the climate of Tabriz; the results of the analysis indicate that the structure can withstand loads applied in the climate of Tabriz with a thickness of more than 3 mm.

Practical Applications

Employed as ornaments in many traditional Iranian and Islamic buildings, the geometric motifs and Islamic girih patterns are esthetically pleasing with good functional strength. These motifs reflect the spirit and identity of traditional architecture and are stuck in people’s minds as patterns from past architecture. The importance of revitalizing these patterns is undeniable due to the identity crisis in contemporary Iranian architecture and the gap between today’s architecture and its brilliant history. As the ornaments have been replaced with functional items in today’s architecture, we attempt to represent these concepts and patterns as architectural functions in this research. Kinetic skins are advanced technologies in the world and have great importance in the functional discussions about sustainability in architecture and reduction of energy consumption. In this research, a positive step is taken towards the research objective, i.e., revitalization of geometric patterns as functions in contemporary architecture in a methodological approach, by selecting a suitable lightweight structure (angulated scissor-like structures) and changing the main structural properties in order to apply the mentioned form on the structure.

This study used multicriteria decision analysis to quantitatively compare two prototype buildings, both designed using equivalent mass timber and steel structural systems across four decision criteria of seismic resiliency, global warming potential, superstructure cost, and durability. The 5-story and 12-story prototype buildings were both located at an arbitrary site in Seattle, WA. The first three decision criteria were quantitatively measured for each prototype building and durability was assumed to be equivalent between the alternatives. Seismic resiliency was measured using the median expected annual loss calculated using as a percentage of predicted building replacement cost using a procedure in line with FEMA P-58. The global warming potential was measured over the production, construction, and end-of-life stages using the life-cycle analysis program Athena Impact Estimator for Buildings (IE4B). The superstructure cost was calculated as the average cost per square meter using 10 estimating variations that attempt to account for uncertainty in market rates of material, labor, and mass timber design efficiency. Five decision-maker scenarios were analyzed that span the practical range of decision-maker priorities, as informed by discussions with architects and engineers active in the Pacific Northwest. Results from this study showed that for decision-maker cases where the global warming priority was low, steel buildings were the preferred choice. For cases with moderate to high global warming priority and low priority on cost, mass timber buildings were the preferred choice. However, for decision-maker scenarios with moderate priority on both global warming potential and cost, the steel and mass timber buildings were approximately equivalent. Finally, a hybrid steel–timber alternative was presented as a possible sweet-spot solution that merged the benefits of each building material and minimized their drawbacks, making it the most-preferred solution for the case of moderate priority on both cost and global warming potential. The hybrid case was also close second in ranked choice for all other scenarios examined.

The load resistance (LR) of glass lites is determined in the United States by use of standards based on a probabilistic model of glass breakage. These standards generally restrict design to rectangular glass lites continuously supported along one, two, three, or four sides. In addition, these standards treat single glass lites as simply supported flat rectangular plates. Historically, rigid window frames supported single glass lites holding them in place with neoprene or similar gasket material. This attachment method approximated simply supported edges that rotate about an axis parallel to the simply supported edges, deform in the plane of the glass lite, and do not deflect out-of-plane. Advances in structural silicone make it possible to produce rectangular single flat glass lites with edge fixity somewhere between that of simply supported edges and fully fixed edges. The authors applied the glass failure prediction model (GFPM) to a nonlinear finite-element model developed previously by the authors to determine the probability of breakage for selected single glass lite geometries with fully fixed edges under uniform lateral loads. The paper presents comparisons between results of analyses of lites with fixed edges with analyses of lites with simply supported edges. The comparisons indicate that not all single glass lite geometries benefit from fully fixing edges, but the benefits of doing so appear to increase as lite aspect ratio (AR) increases. The comparisons bracket benefits that can accrue from the partial fixity provided by structural silicone supports. The actual degree of fixity provided by structural silicone can only be determined experimentally, which lies outside the scope of this paper.

The mud-brick or adobe structures that have remained from the 2003 Bam earthquake were studied in this article. One of earth’s weaknesses as a building material is its low ductility, which leads to problems in seismic performance and requires the application of less material-dependent techniques to increase their seismic resistance. The application of architectural design principles leads to a less material-dependent approach to seismic resistance. The architectural design criteria to improve seismic performance, that is, site selection, neighboring, plan, elevation, openings configuration, building height and weight, and weight distribution, is discussed in the literature. The grounded theory research method was applied to classify and analyze the qualitative data that were gathered through field observations after the 2003 Bam earthquake. The use of the architectural principles enabled architects to improve the seismic performance of the mud-brick structures. The architectural principles discussed are the base and foundations, backing, height, geometry, and continuity of the perpendicular axes. A structure’s bearing walls that are backed by other elements, which include natural earth in underground bearing walls, had a great effect on the stability of the roof and walls during a seismic event.

Remote teamwork has become critical to the communicative and collaborative operations of architectural practice and education in Australia. Consequently, building information modeling (BIM) processes, which are core to both sharing and producing architectural designs, are evolving in response. The aim of this paper is to examine and identify ways to improve BIM-enabled design collaboration processes in architectural practice and education. Using data from semi-structured open-ended interviews (n = 25) undertaken during the pandemic, this paper identified six thematic categories of BIM-enabled design collaboration processes: (1) representation, (2) communication, (3) coordination, (4) collaboration, (5) technical operation, and (6) nontechnical operation. These themes, along with 48 codes developed from the interviews, are then presented as an integrated BIM process model. This model contributes to a collective understanding of recent BIM processes and areas where improvements are needed to support BIM adoption and implementation in the new era of remote working.

Owners, occupants, and society are constantly changing the demands and expectations placed on buildings. Design for adaptability (DfA) provides one approach for delivering buildings that serve current needs and that can be readily adapted to meet future demands. The benefits and strategies of DfA have been widely reported; however, there is a dearth of information on the costs of implementing DfA. This paper presents a case study evaluating the economic costs of applying select DfA strategies to a wood-framed multifamily residential building in Atlanta. Comparisons are made between the construction costs of a baseline non-DfA building and a series of adaptable buildings. DfA strategies in the adaptable buildings include increased floor live load, increased floor-to-floor height, and the use of post-and-beam framing instead of interior structural walls. When all three of these strategies were implemented in the same design, the estimated building construction cost increased by 14%. The cost increase ranged from 1% to 7% when only one of the DfA strategies was implemented in a design. These comparisons are intended to facilitate cost–benefit analyses by designers, owners, and contractors interested in intentionally designed adaptable buildings.