Impact of HVAC Operation and Air Distribution Schemes on Thermal Comfort and Energy Consumption in Intermittent High-Occupancy Buildings: A Case of Mosques
Publication: Journal of Architectural Engineering
Volume 29, Issue 1
Abstract
In high-occupancy intermittent buildings, such as mosques and theaters, it is challenging to design proper air distribution systems and HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning) operation strategies to maintain thermal comfort at reduced energy consumption. This study investigates the thermal and energy performance of a high-occupancy intermittently operated mosque in Saudi Arabia. DesignBuilder software (version v4.7) was used for the coupled energy and computational fluid dynamics simulations. The continuous HVAC operation results indicate an annual cooling energy consumption of 181 kW · h/m2, with only two under-floor air distribution system models [through-wall supply with eight diffusers at 3 m height and ceiling return (M5) and through-wall supply with 10 diffusers at 3 m height and wall return at 3 m from the ground (M6)] achieving thermal comfort with only a few cold spots in the throw areas. The intermittent operation saved 30% of the total annual energy consumption, reducing it from 181 to 127 kW · h/m2, in turn, saving 35% of the total cooling energy consumption. Intermittent HVAC operation cases achieved thermal comfort, except for the four-way ceiling supply and wall return (M1). Therefore, implementing intermittent HVAC operation strategies in high-occupancy buildings significantly reduces energy consumption, while achieving thermal comfort when appropriate air distribution strategies are employed. These results provide critical guidelines for the design and operation of proper HVAC systems.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the support provided by King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals.
References
Abdou, A. A., M. S. Al-Homoud, and I. M. Budaiwi. 2005. “Mosque energy performance, part I: Energy audit and use trends based on the analysis of utility billing data.” J. King Abdulaziz Univ.-Eng. Sci. 16 (1): 155–173. https://doi.org/10.4197/eng.16-1.10.
Al-Ajmi, F. F. 2010. “Thermal comfort in air-conditioned mosques in the dry desert climate.” Build. Environ. 45 (11): 2407–2413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.05.003.
Al-Homoud, M. S. 2009. “Envelope thermal design optimization of buildings with intermittent occupancy.” J. Build. Phys. 33 (1): 65–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744259109102799.
Al-Homoud, M. S., A. A. Abdou, and I. M. Budaiwi. 2009. “Assessment of monitored energy use and thermal comfort conditions in mosques in hot-humid climates.” Energy Build. 41 (6): 607–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.12.005.
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers). 2009. Fundamentals handbook. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers). 2013a. Handbook of fundamentals. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers). 2013b. Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. Standard 55. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers). 2017. Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. Standard 55. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Awbi, H. B. 2017. “Ventilation for good indoor air quality and energy efficiency.” Energy Procedia 112: 277–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1098.
Azmi, N.A., and S. H. Ibrahim. 2020. “A comprehensive review on thermal performance and envelope thermal design of mosque buildings.” Build. Environ. 185: 107305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107305.
Azmi, N. A., M. Arıcı, and A. Baharun. 2021. “A review on the factors influencing energy efficiency of mosque buildings.” J. Cleaner Prod. 292: 126010. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126010.
Budaiwi, I., and A. Abdou. 2013. “HVAC system operational strategies for reduced energy consumption in buildings with intermittent occupancy: The case of mosques.” Energy Convers. Manage. 73: 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.04.008.
Budaiwi, I. M. 2010. “Envelope thermal design for energy savings in mosques in hot-humid climate.” J. Build. Perform. Simul. 4 (1): 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/19401491003746639.
Budaiwi, I. M., A. A. Abdou, and M. S. Al-Homoud. 2013. “Envelope retrofit and air-conditioning operational strategies for reduced energy consumption in mosques in hot climates.” Build. Simul. 6 (1): 33–50. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12273-012-0092-5.
Cao, G., H. Awbi, R. Yao, Y. Fan, K. Sirén, R. Kosonen, and J. Zhang. 2014. “A review of the performance of different ventilation and airflow distribution systems in buildings.” Build. Environ. 73: 171–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.12.009.
Cheng, Y., J. Niu, Z. Du, and Y. Lei. 2015. “Investigation on the thermal comfort and energy efficiency of stratified air distribution systems.” Energy Sustainable Dev. 28: 1–9. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su8080732.
Cheng, Y., J. Niu, and N. Gao. 2012. “Stratified air distribution systems in a large lecture theatre: A numerical method to optimize thermal comfort and maximize energy-saving.” Energy Build. 55: 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.09.021.
Cheong, K. W. D., E. Djunaedy, Y. L. Chua, K. W. Tham, S. C. Sekhar, N. H. Wong, and M. B. Ullah. 2003. “Thermal comfort study of an air-conditioned lecture theatre in the tropics.” Build. Environ. 38 (1): 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(02)00020-3.
Crawley, D. B., J. W. Hand, M. Kummert, and B. T. Griffith. 2008. “Contrasting the capabilities of building energy performance simulation programs.” Build. Environ. 43 (4): 661–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.10.027.
Crawley, D. B., L. K. Lawrie, C. O. Pedersen, and F. C. Winkelmann. 2000. “Energy plus: Energy simulation program.” ASHRAE J. 42 (4): 49–56.
Crawley, D. B., L. K. Lawrie, C. O. Pedersen, F. C. Winkelmann, M. J. Witte, R. K. Strand, R. J. Liesen, W. F. Buhl, Y. J. Huang, and R. H. Henninger. 2004. “EnergyPlus: New, capable, and linked.” J. Archit. Plann. Res. 21 (4): 292–302. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43030706.
DesignBuilder. 2021. “DesignBuilder Software Product Overview.” DesignBuilder Software Ltd. Accessed December 15, 2021. https://designbuilder.co.uk/.
Diler, Y., C. Turhan, Z. D. Arsan, and G. G. Akkurt. 2021. “Thermal comfort analysis of historical mosques. Case study: The Ulu Mosque, Manisa, Turkey.” Energy Build. 252: 111441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111441.
Fan, Y., T. Hayashi, and K. Ito. 2012. “Coupled simulation of BES-CFD and performance assessment of energy recovery ventilation system for office model.” J. Cent. South Univ. 19 (3): 633–638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-012-1049-7.
Fan, Y., and K. Ito. 2014. “Integrated building energy computational fluid dynamics simulation for estimating the energy-saving effect of energy recovery ventilator with CO2 demand-controlled ventilation system in office space.” Indoor Built Environ. 23 (6): 785–803. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X13494034.
Fanger, P. O. 1970. “Thermal comfort: Analysis and applications in environmental engineering.” Appl. Ergon. 3 (3): 181. https://doi.org/10.1177/146642407209200337.
Fanger, P. O. 1973. “Assessment of man’s thermal comfort in practice.” Br. J. Ind. Med. 30 (4): 313–324. https://doi.org/ 10.1136/oem.30.4.313.
Fathollahzadeh, M. H., G. Heidarinejad, and H. Pasdarshahri. 2016. “Producing a better performance for the underfloor air distribution system in a dense occupancy space.” Energy Build. 126: 230–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.05.008.
Gao, R., H. Li, H. Zhang, C. Wang, A. Li, W. Du, and B. Deng. 2021a. “Research on a personalized targeted air supply device based on body movement capture.” Indoor Air 31 (1): 206–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12719.
Gao, R., M. Liu, Q. Zheng, Z. Zhang, R. Jing, A. Li, W. Lei, and L. Zhang. 2021b. “High-efficiency diffuser based on a normalized evaluation index of jet length and resistance.” Build. Environ. 195: 107737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.107737.
Gil-Lopez, T., M. A. Galvez-Huerta, P. G. O’Donohoe, J. Castejon-Navas, and P. M. Dieguez-Elizondo. 2017. “Analysis of the influence of the return position in the vertical temperature gradient in displacement ventilation systems for large halls.” Energy Build. 140: 371–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.02.017.
Hu, Y., X. Xia, and J. Wang. 2022. “Research on operation strategy of radiant cooling system based on intermittent operation characteristics.” J. Build. Eng. 45: 103483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103483.
Jouhara, H., and J. Yang. 2018. “Energy-efficient HVAC systems.” Energy Build. 179: 83–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.09.001.
Kandzia, C., R. Kosonen, A. K. Melikov, and P. V. Nielsen. 2013. Mixing ventilation. guide on mixing air distribution design. Ixelles, Belgium: Federation of European Heating and Air-Conditioning Associations, REHVA.
Kavgic, M., D. Mumovic, Z. Stevanovic, and A. Young. 2008. “Analysis of thermal comfort and indoor air quality in a mechanically ventilated theatre.” Energy Build. 40 (7): 1334–1343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.12.002.
Kim, G., L. Schaefer, T. S. Lim, and J. T. Kim. 2013. “Thermal comfort prediction of an underfloor air distribution system in a large indoor environment.” Energy Build. 64: 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.05.003.
Kwong, Q. J., N. M. Adam, and B. B. Sahari. 2014. “Thermal comfort assessment and potential for energy efficiency enhancement in modern tropical buildings: A review.” Energy Build. 68 (Part A): 547–557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.09.034.
Li, Q., H. Yoshino, A. Mochida, B. Lei, Q. Meng, L. Zhao, and Y. Lun. 2009. “CFD study of the thermal environment in an air-conditioned train station building.” Build. Environ. 44 (7): 1452–1465. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.08.010.
Maile, T., M. Fischer, and V. Bazjanac. 2007. Building energy performance simulation tools—A life-cycle and interoperable perspective, 1–49. Working Paper 107. Stanford, CA: Center for Integrated Facility Engineering.
Malik, K. 2018. “Analysis of the thermal comfort conditions in terminal buildings at domestic airports in India.” Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res. 13 (19): 14218–14230. https://doi.org/ 10.37622/000000.
Noh, K.-C., J.-S. Jang, and M.-D. Oh. 2007. “Thermal comfort and indoor air quality in the lecture room with 4-way cassette air-conditioner and mixing ventilation system.” Build. Environ. 42 (2): 689–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.10.033.
Saeed, S. A. R. 1996. “Thermal comfort requirements in hot dry regions with special reference to Riyadh, part 2: For Friday prayer.” Int. J. Ambient Energy 17 (1): 17–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/01430750.1996.9675211.
Samiuddin, S., and I. M. Budaiwi. 2018. “Assessment of thermal comfort in high-occupancy spaces with relevance to air distribution schemes: A case study of mosques.” Build. Serv. Eng. Res. Technol. 39 (5): 572–589. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143624418764769.
Sørensen, D. N., and P. V. Nielsen. 2003. “Quality control of computational fluid dynamics in indoor environments.” Indoor Air 13 (1): 2–17. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1600-0668.2003.00170.x.
Tawackolian, K., E. Lichtner, and M. Kriegel. 2020. “Draught perception in intermittent ventilation at neutral room temperature.” Energy Build. 224: 110268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.110268.
Yi, Y. K., and N. Feng. 2013. “Dynamic integration between building energy simulation (BES) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation for building exterior surface.” Build. Simul. 6 (3): 297–308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-013-0116-9.
Zhang, Z., R. Gao, Y. Liu, M. Liu, Y. Wang, W. Zhu, L. Zhou, and A. Li. 2021. “Smart air supply terminal for floor-standing room air conditioners based on the identification of human positions.” Build. Environ.. 202: 108041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108041.
Zhao, K., J. Weng, and J. Ge. 2020. “On-site measured indoor thermal environment in large spaces of airports during winter.” Build. Environ. 167: 106463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106463.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Architectural Engineering
Volume 29 • Issue 1 • March 2023
Copyright
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Feb 18, 2022
Accepted: Oct 11, 2022
Published online: Nov 18, 2022
Published in print: Mar 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Apr 18, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.