Ports 2007: 30 Years of Sharing Ideas: 1977-2007

The port city of Prince Rupert is located on British Columbia's rugged North West coast. Its strategic Pacific Rim location offers shippers a shorter sailing time to Asia compared to both Vancouver and Seattle/Tacoma. The Prince Rupert Port Authority (PRPA) is currently converting an existing break bulk terminal to a new use as an intermodal container terminal. Phase 1 is now underway and is expected to accommodate up to 500,000 Twenty Foot Equivalent Units (TEUs) per year. Currently planned expansions could bring the total throughput capacity to some 1.5 million TEUs per year. This facility is the first major shipping terminal to be built in northern British Columbia in more than two decades and the first container facility to be built outside the Vancouver geographical area. Although the local community is small and generates little local container traffic itself, the port is served by an excellent Class 1 mainline rail connection to eastern Canada and the U.S. Midwest. This railway currently operates with excess capacity, providing the opportunity for rail bound container cargo to bypass port and rail congestion experienced at other West Coast ports. This unique combination of factors led to an unusual operational model where almost 100% of the cargo is destined for intermodal rail. As a result, a unique planning process was used for this prototype facility, focusing on the interrelationship between vessel and rail schedules.

Guinea has over one-third of the world reserves of bauxite, the raw ore used to produce alumina. Traditionally, the raw ore has been shipped to refineries throughout the world. Global Alumina, a New York based company, has developed a proposal to refine the bauxite near a mine site in Guinea and export the refined product directly to the world market. As part of this program, there is a need to develop a port facility that will be used to export bulk alumina, and also to import other bulk commodities to support the refining operation. This paper describes the planning and design process associated with the port facility. It will discuss navigational issues, ship operations, material handling and storage, yard operations, and rail operations. The paper will also address the logistical issues associated with construction of a marine terminal in a remote location, and presents some of the unique engineering challenges, including dredging, reclamation, and material-handling equipment.

The Government of Qatar has decided to relocate the country's main commercial port from the center of Doha Bay to a new location. The decision to relocate the port was driven by the fact that the existing port location is an obstacle to the Government's extensive development plans to transform Qatar into a major regional business and financial center. Doha's rapid growth has also limited any possible expansion of the existing port. In 2004, the Qatari Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture (MMAA) commissioned a Master Planning study to address these issues. The initial effort for the port relocation was to study and evaluate potential sites along the entire east coast of Qatar. A total of seven sites were investigated. The port site ultimately selected is called Ra's Bu Mashut, and is located offshore of the new Doha International Airport, now under construction. Including harbor area and reclamation, the 600 hectare New Doha Port (NDP) will eventually become one of the world's largest offshore ports and will grow to be a major transshipment hub for the entire Persian Gulf. Unique features of the NDP include: 1) Port access via a secure, 8 km, 4-lane causeway; 2) Over 5 km of breakwaters and containment dikes required to create 230 hectares of land and 370 hectares of protected harbor; 3) Separate berthing and port facilities for visiting naval ships, up to and including a Nimitz class aircraft carrier and escort ships; 4) Commercial port facilities, including state-of-the-art container terminals, general and bulk cargo terminals, a livestock terminal, and an auto import terminal; and 5) Free-trade zone onshore, linked to the New Doha International Airport's FTZ. This paper will discuss the unique planning and design challenges that were encountered during the Master Planning effort. The paper will also include a discussion on the overall status of the project and present an update on the design and construction schedule.

The Port of Miami (Port) ranks in the top 10 cargo container ports in the United States and remains the largest container port in Florida. The Port has more than 40 shipping lines calling on over 132 countries and over 362 ports. In addition to its strength as a cargo port, the Port is also the largest multi-day cruise passenger homeport in the world (Port of Miami, 2005). The total economic impact of Port operations on the nation is estimated at more than $12 billion per year. More than 90,000 jobs are directly or indirectly attributable to Port operations. In 1997, the Port, working through Congress, requested the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) study the feasibility of improving navigation in Miami Harbor. Receipt of funding in 1999 allowed for initiation of the study. In 2004, the Corps completed the study that evaluated possible safety and efficiency improvements to the Miami Harbor channel system. The study recommended $181 million in improvements including 8 feet of deepening from a project depth of 42 feet to 50 feet and significant widening of various channels, basins, and berthing areas. The paper will overview the steps the team used to conduct the planning study, will discuss major challenges that were faced, and how the team worked collaboratively with stakeholders to ultimately produce a recommended improvement plan that met the efficiency and safety improvement needs while minimizing environmental impacts.

Manzanillo International Terminal (MIT) located in the Colón Free Zone, Republic of Panama, is a large and busy marine transshipment terminal for container and roll-on/roll-off (RO/RO) cargo. In 2005, MIT handled approximately 1.6 million 20-foot equivalent units (TEUs) and 50,000 units of RO/RO cargo. Estimated projections show the terminal handling approximately 2.5 million TEUs and 100,000 units of RO/RO by the year 2010. The berth occupancy rate at MIT generally exceeds 80 percent, making this one of the world's busiest terminals. In order to ease congestion, improve service, and increase capacity, a master planning effort was required to increase berth and container yard space and traffic patterns within the terminal complex. The challenges associated with master planning work at MIT are vast, but the most important challenge is to ensure that construction does not impede the existing operations of the terminal. Implementation of the master plan will take place in the next five years and will add approximately 1,300 meters of berth space and 40 hectares of container stacking yard. This will make MIT the largest single terminal in Central and South America at approximately 3,000 meters of berth and 95 hectares of usable terminal space.

A Master Plan for development of the Jebel Ali New Container Terminal (JANCT) to the year 2030 was prepared. Except for the initial expansion stage, which will be constructed primarily on an existing landfill, the JANCT will be constructed as a set of offshore islands connected to the existing Port. The Master Plan included a comprehensive market analysis, forecasts of cargo growth for containerized and non-containerized cargo, and a study of container handling operations. This was followed by an analysis of alternative development scenarios to meet the projected growth. The Master Plan also included a forecast of vessel size growth, terminal operations simulations, a navigation study, road transportation planning, and a cost estimate and financial analysis. Jebel Ali will be expanded in up to 14 stages by 2030 to accommodate an annual throughput of 56 million TEU of container traffic and 150 million tons of general cargo, automobiles, and bulk cargo, making it one of the world's largest ports.

The conceptual plan for the Jebel Ali New Container Terminal (JANCT) in Dubai combines many innovations in one advanced container terminal. The plan is ambitious in both the use of leading edge container handling technology as well as the enormous scale of proposed landfills. Jebel Ali is already renowned as the first terminal to use tandem 40-foot cranes. This paper explains how a mega-terminal is developed from the ground-up around these cranes, so that each aspect remains in balance with the remarkably high wharf productivity that is expected. Specific areas of focus are: 1) the ideal crane gage for tandem-40-foot cranes; 2) comparing twin-20-foot shuttle-carriers with trucks and trailers as a high-speed conveyance mode; 3) comparing twin-20-foot yard cranes that keep pace with the wharf, including rail-mounted gantry cranes (RMGs), rubber-tired gantry cranes (RTGs), and automatic stacking cranes (ASC); and 4) development of a gate complex capable of massive expansion and high security.

The rapid growth of world trade has increased demand on ports and transportation services that distribute freight throughout the country. User fees have been considered as a method to invest in new infrastructure to better meet this demand. This paper demonstrates a method for evaluating the potential impact of such fees on ports' market shares. The paper summarizes multiple analyses of the potential impact of fees on competitive ports' traffic volume and market share. The goal is to estimate if/how additional fees would affect port demand, and ultimately port revenues. Besides measuring ports' market shares via PIERS, transportation costs were estimated for alternative routes between overseas Trade Regions and inland market areas. A regression model compares the costs of routing through competitive ports and their respective shares. The model also helped evaluate the impact of all-water routings, size of the port market and the logistics resources near the port.

The Port of Palm Beach is a 153 acre niche port located on the Southeast coast of Florida, approximately 60 miles North of Miami. Over the past decade, the Port of Palm Beach has transformed to a modern Port able to meet the planned needs of its tenants and implement their 1995 Master Plan. Today, due to efficient land use, it has one of the highest container throughputs per acre in the country. The Port continues to grow in through-put at a rapid pace and it is imperative that they adapt there current and restricted land to meet the expanding demands. In 2005, the Port developed a 2005 – 2015 Master Plan that established nearly $150 million dollars in Capital Improvements to expand the Port's operations by more efficiently using the existing lands and proposing Southward expansion into new land. One project within the 2005 Master Plan is the creation of a South Gate Facility which includes: Demolition of an existing 160,000 SF office/retail building; Construction of a 60,000 SF Warehouse and associated Security Offices; Construction of Access Road Improvements; Construction of a New Multi-Lane Gate Facility; and, Construction of a 5.5 acres of cargo laydown area. The South Gate project is budgeted at $16 million for planning, design, and construction. At completion, this project will open up/develop 2 acres of waterfront by consolidating the warehouses spread throughout the Port as well as create nearly 6 acres of additional cargo lay-down space for expanded Port business. This project is expected to be the cornerstone project to start the remainder of the 2005 Master Plan projects including a future tie-in to planned future state highway improvements. It is expected that the South Gate Facility will be accomplished while maintaining uninterrupted business operations. Through tenant partnering, aggressive planning and decisions, this project is expected to be completed at the end of 2007. This paper will outline the process of planning, security considerations and requirements, the functional layout of the facility and the construction phasing processes used in order to maintain business flow during construction.

The Port of Oakland is poised for significant growth in cargo volumes, as they prepare for the final stage of channel deepening, and phase-in the development of the former Naval Supply Center and Oakland Army Base properties. The demand that is driving the cargo growth comes from several sources: expanding urban areas reaching south toward Gilroy and east into the San Joaquin Valley; development of inland transload warehouse centers; and relative efficiency of intermodal service. The Port is planning for this potential growth through implementation of their Vision 2000 Program and the "Maritime Development Alternatives Study" (MDAS). The Vision 2000 efforts provided major expansions into land that the U.S. Navy decommissioned. Part of this expansion included the recent completion of marine terminals at Berths 55–56 and Berths 57–59, and the Oakland International Gateway (OIG) rail yard. MDAS subsequently identified discrete elements that could be implemented as market and customer demand warranted. MDAS considered utilization of property decommissioned by the U.S. Army. This property transferred ownership and became available for Port development in August 2006 and the Port is now working to advance toward concept development and implementation. The Port provides a necessary service towards the region/nation's goods movement requirements, but also recognizes its responsibility to minimize impacts on surrounding communities. The Port developments have been planned in close coordination with adjacent city entities. One truck reduction concept is CIRIS (California Inter-Regional Intermodal System), which emphasizes rail transport of cargo to areas normally served by truck transport. The Port has also committed to reducing air quality impacts through green policies and programs, and by setting aside a significant area for truck related activities so that these activities do not occur in the surrounding neighborhoods.

In the years ahead, ports will have to juggle vigorous container cargo growth at their facilities, which have limited physical expansion capabilities. Currently, US ports have capacities of approximately 4,000 – 7,000 TEU/Lifts/Year, while ports in Asia and Europe are well over 12,000 TEU/Lifts/Year. Space is limited, and the question is not if they are going to run out of space, but rather when. In the last five years, many ports have taken steps to increase the capacity of their ports, but not to maximize the capacity. If we consider the limits in physical growth, ports should take the necessary steps to densify their properties and implement solutions that will maximize its capacity. In that process, they need to evaluate and justify if some of their present facilities or operation tasks, or equipment should remain and occupy the hi-value port land. The ports need to establish a competent process that will evaluate their property and find what needs to be done in order to maximize the capacity. One of the most challenging goals, in finding solutions, is to identify what makes each port unique. It has been proven that the old approach, "What has worked there will work here." does not actually work in real life. The ultimate goal is to deploy an operational scheme that will maximize the port utilization and capacity. An approach using Design — Reconstruct — Upgrade (DRU) may be one of the most effective approaches in the process. A port will be redesigned to maximize the capacity, reconstructed to support cargo volume until intermediate capacity and upgraded later to accommodate the full capacity. This approach will not require immediate full capital investment to exploit the port capacity. Also, the port densification process needs to be paired with the implementation of modern technologies and solutions to reduce air emissions and water pollutions to make existing ports to become environmentally, friendly ports — "Green Ports". Any densification needs to be carefully planned and utilize a full knowledge of port operations and requirements. One of the critical points is to develop phased reconstruction and/or upgrade. Also, the ongoing port operation and improvements needs to be performed in parallel. The challenge of an engineer is to propose solutions that will balance economical construction and timeframe of the same. In this objective, the prime goal is to achieve the most economical options and operational schemes that will facilitate full flexibility to the operator. The densification will create benefits but in the same time impact labor. For example, a fully automated operation will maximize utilization and capacity, and improve productivity and efficiency of ports, but may reduce the labor requirements. This challenge will require teamwork from all parties involved in finding best solutions besides just increasing the port's capacity. This paper provides an overview of recommending a process for densification of existing port facilities in order to maximize the port capacity. It provides an insight of challenges that must be overcome due to limited physical growth.

The Port of Seattle has limited space for further expansion of existing facilities or construction of new container terminals to meet the demands to deliver increasing volumes of products throughout the Puget Sound and United States. Therefore, improvements to existing terminals must focus on increasing terminal capacity and efficiency through modernization and operational enhancements, including new equipment such as Super Post-Panamax container cranes. The start of construction of the three-year Terminal 18 North Apron Upgrade project, including major structural modifications and electrical capacity upgrades to support new container cranes, coincided with the dramatic increase in container volumes experienced in the summer of 2005. Although the end goal of these projects is to increase terminal efficiency, the construction results in a temporary reduction of available operating terminal area. Under these conditions, the planning challenge was to allow continued operation of the Port of Seattle's busiest container facility throughout construction.

The authors present a methodology developed with agent based simulation modeling that integrates three primary components of the seaport landside freight logistics network. The methodology recognizes the dependency on vehicular flow and rail scheduling that limits capacity. Increased throughput can only be achieved when down stream components in the system are capable of managing increased demands from upstream components. A case study is presented that recognizes the dependencies and determines operational and resource alternatives that increase throughput without physical growth. A surge demand scenario determines additional resources and schedule changes to maximize achievable throughput with existing footprints.

Modern technology is being implemented within the maritime environment and the shape of traditional container terminals is changing. The operational results include more accurate data gathering, faster data processing, faster operational processing, increased storage density, more efficient container handling equipment, and new terminal operating paradigms. Technologies being highlighted include new vessel lashing systems, "cold ironing" systems, tandem-lift cranes, IBC service platforms, Automated Stacking Cranes, AGVs, OCR camera systems, AEI systems, RPM inspection systems, Biometric identification systems, etc. Descriptive photos and diagrams are used to describe these technologies. Comparisons of traditional to modern gate layouts, container yard layouts, and circulation patterns are made in response to the use of these technologies. Issues regarding system velocity, efficiency, density, and resulting throughput statistics are integrated.

Conventional single-hoist container cranes have been in use since the mid-sixties. Many innovations have been developed to improve the productivity, including increases in trolley/hoist speeds, cranes with two trolleys, and elevating girder cranes. The latest development is a tandem-40 crane that can handle two 40-foot containers for each lift. Tandem crane technology has been proven successful. Several ports, including Algeciras, Spain; Antwerp, Belgium; Dubai, U.A.E.; Shanghai, China; and Yantian, China, are now using tandem-40s effectively. This paper discusses single-hoist tandem-40 (SHT40) and dual-hoist tandem-40 (DHT40) cranes. These cranes pick up two or more containers with a single trolley running on a conventional runway. We compare these cranes to conventional container cranes and discuss tandem crane components, the importance of improved yard operations to accommodate the tandem 40s, impact on wharf structure design, and possible productivity improvements.

Container terminals are becoming increasingly more congested and expensive to operate. Highways and railways are already congested by container traffic and this congestion will worsen. In 2006, Secretary of Transportation Norman Mineta, and the US. Department of Transportation expressed serious concerns about congestion. Norman Mineta called congestion one of the single largest threats to the economy. He further emphasized, "We need a new approach and we need it now." The USDOT issued the National Strategy to Reduce Congestion that provides a plan for federal, state, and local officials to tackle congestion. Pollution from port operations is also a rising concern. These factors create a growing need for new, more economical terminal operation methods. Floaterm is a concept that could help reduce pollution and congestion at ports and the arteries feeding them. The Floaterm concept utilizes waterside container cranes on a barge to form, in effect, an offshore wharf. The container ship is moored to the crane barge or vice versa. Containers are transferred from the ship to the barge deck or to feeder barges. The concept was originally developed by Liftech in 2000 at the suggestion of the Port of Oakland Executive Director Charles Foster. Simultaneously, Dr. Asaf Ashar of Louisiana State University developed a parallel concept. Investigators at Delft University studied the Floaterm concept in 2005. Although the concept may not be economically viable at this time, the costs of conventional waterfront terminal development and operations combined with the associated congestion and pollution, will eventually justify full development of the Floaterm concept.

In 2006, the City of Eureka completed the Fisherman's Terminal project. The project is the latest development of the City's waterfront revitalization plan and provides a facility for Humboldt Bay commercial fisherman to moor their boats, offload their catch, sell to fish buyers, load supplies, and perform boat maintenance. Fisherman's Terminal includes a 17,000-square-foot wharf, jib cranes, upland lay down area, truck loading dock, public access paths, a float for harbor tour boat terminal, and a building pad for future construction of a fish-handling plant, market, and restaurant. In keeping with the City's goal of making the waterfront a "people place," this project complements the Inner Channel Dock and Boardwalk project completed in 2001, by incorporating elements that give the public an opportunity to observe the terminal's operations. A new pile-supported plaza area over the water, a pedestrian walkway along the landside of the wharf, and access paths from Waterfront Drive invite the public to come down and observe the activities or just spend some quiet time along the water. The philosophy of creating a "people place" on the water has been very successful as indicated by the presence of one newly completed development along the existing Boardwalk and another major retail and residential development is in the advance planning stage. Local retailers benefit not only directly from the fishing activities, but also from the new customers attracted by the new facilities. Funding for the project was difficult to obtain during a slow economic period and due to State budget problems. However, strong support from the community and tireless efforts by City staff and local elected officials resulted in a number of grants from federal, State, and local agencies added to redevelopment funds to make the project a reality.

In 1976, the Port of Seattle re-acquired the 215-acre (0.8 km²) Terminal 91 property from the federal government. Since that time, the terminal's 7,500 lineal feet (2,286 m) of deep water protected berth area and substantial upland support acreage and infrastructure have met the needs of the maritime and industrial communities. Terminal 91 has provided waterfront and support areas for water-dependant industries such as cargo, fishing, fish processing, petroleum, fruit transfer and storage, and automobile imports. Like some other West Coast cities, Seattle is facing both an increasing shortage of readily developable properties in its urban core and an upturn in demand for commercial space. Properties available for development are typically small and are encumbered with infrastructure requiring removal or require environmental remediation that limits their profitable use. The availability of large unencumbered properties with good roadway access and within the immediate vicinity of the downtown and industrial core are exceedingly rare and present unique development opportunities. The Port of Seattle's Terminal 91 is reflective of such opportunities. The relocation of an automobile importing operation to another port in 2001 immediately vacated more than 50 acres (0.2 km²) of industrial land in an area of Seattle where increasing land values are making new industrial development less and less financially feasible. The Port is provided an enormous opportunity and responsibility to transform this underused publicly-owned property into a valuable asset for the city and region while attempting to meet the needs of local industrial, commercial, and residential interests.

The City of Tacoma has undertaken the task of reviving the Thea Foss Waterway, a 1.5-mile-long inlet along the downtown waterfront. Once the economic center of the city's maritime and industrial activities, the waterway had experienced a steady decline with tenants vacating properties leaving behind empty facilities and contaminated land. In 1981, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency declared the waterway as part of the Commencement Bay Nearshore/Tideflats Superfund Cleanup Project. The City subsequently mobilized support for recovering the waterway, culminating in the Thea Foss and Wheeler-Osgood Waterways Remediation Project, which commenced in November 2002. The project included dredging, capping, channel deepening, bank stabilization, creation of environmental habitat areas, and construction of an 11-acre capped Confined Disposal Facility, creating an equal amount of new industrial land.

In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, the Port of Gulfport struggled to rebuild its port facilities and cargo base while the surrounding local community and state government considered dramatic plans to reuse the Port and surrounding area for urban renewal of the waterfront. Local community interest and state renewal plans were developed to rebuild the Mississippi coastline that was devastated by Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005. The state renewal plan conflicted with the existing Port Master Plan and port access plans in ways that limited port operations. This study will show how the Port balanced competing interests to arrive at a plan that allows its continued growth and success and simultaneously provides a compromise for urban renewal of the Mississippi waterfront. Elements of the Master Plan include container terminals, dry bulk facilities, break bulk terminals, cruise facilities, gaming operations, hotel/commercial land uses, marinas, shrimp fleet operations, elevated highway connector roadways, rail access, and an off-dock intermodal yard. The access issues involved considering methods to separate traffic patterns for the cruise passengers, gaming patrons, and truck traffic — while still allowing limited destination traffic routing through the downtown core. An overview will be provided of the lessons learned about structural damage, land use changes and their impacts on the planning for the future redevelopment of the Port and access routes. These lessons are applicable to all ports that are located adjacent to waterfront communities and areas potentially impacted by natural disasters.

The South Carolina State Ports Authority's Columbus Street Terminal is located on the right descending bank of the Lower Town Creek Reach of the Cooper River in Charleston, South Carolina. The 3875' pile supported concrete wharf structure is situated parallel to the channel, but the lower 1640' is canted 10 degrees inland. The reach widens on the lower end with the channel flow going away from the wharf. Significant silting was experienced on this lower end. The channel and berth are authorized to –45' MLW. The lower 1640' of berth was dredged to 53' MLW every four months to maintain the authorized depth. The total cost to maintain depths on the lower end was approaching $1 million per year. Each 4 month dredging removed approximately 80,000 cubic yards. The dredging cost averaged about $250,000.00 per cycle or $750,000.00 per year. The material was placed in nearby confined disposal facilities. Maintenance of the disposal areas averaged approximately $250,000.00/year. Dredging operations had to be worked around vessel activity and typically took 4–5 days per cycle. Scheduling the dredge often became difficult and prices could significantly vary with dredge availability. Delays in dredging the berth created operational problems and vessel groundings. Fortunately, the soft bottoms never damaged the vessels. In the late 1980's a new technology was developed by the Navy to control sedimentation in estuarine and fluvial berthing areas. The technology was commercially installed in Terminal #4 at the Port of Grays Harbor in Washington in 1987. Certain sediments will form a layer of fluid mud during periods of slack water between tides. Those sediments may be kept in suspension or re-suspended by introduction of flow into the water column. Kept in suspension, they then would be carried out of the berthing area on the next tidal flow. The new technology consisted of a series of water jets to keep the fluid mud in suspension until the natural water flow carried it out. The jets put energy into the water column during times of slack water when siltation typically occurs. Generally, the technology can best be applied to those sediments that have high silt/clay content and settle slowly from the water column. Sandy type materials tend to quickly settle and are not as easily kept entrained. The technology depends upon the natural flow of the stream. However, the system can be designed to operate in streams flowing as little as 0.25 knots. The systems can operate in fresh or saline conditions and can protect berthing areas up to 250' wide perpendicular to the face of the wharf.

The cost of safeguarding the environment during construction dredging may have risen after the passage, beginning in the 1950s, of legislation to protect the environment. This might occur if increasingly stringent legislation were passed over the years or if the interpretation of existing legislation became stricter. One way to examine the impact is to study components of and trends in the cost of environmental protection. To keep this examination manageable the study was limited to construction dredging contracts in the continental United States planned, designed and contracted by Jacksonville District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Line item pricing data collected from solicitation bid summaries were analyzed. The cost of environmental protection is a life-cycle cost, not simply a construction cost. To protect the environment, time and money are being invested in construction, and also in mitigation, planning, design, and post-construction monitoring.

The Cox Creek Dredged Material Containment Facility (DMCF) is a confined disposal facility (CDF) which is a major component of the Maryland Port Administration's (MPA) dredged material management plan (DMMP) for Baltimore Harbor. After much study, design, and re-design in response to environmental, geotechnical and value engineering concerns, the 115-acre Cox Creek DMCF Dike Raising and Rehabilitation Project began construction in September 2002, with completion in the Fall of 2006. The reactivated facility will be used to meet the goals of the Dredging Needs and Placement Options Program (DNPOP) of the Port of Baltimore, and is to receive an annual capacity of 0.5 million cubic yards (MCY) of material dredged from the Baltimore Harbor channels, which are legislated as being contaminated. Total capacity is planned to be 6 MCY over an operational life of 10 to 12 years. Several environmental and geotechnical issues needed to be resolved before construction could begin. Key components of the design include the following: 1) Design and construction of a new 66-inch storm drain to reroute storm water into a water quality management pond prior to discharge; 2) Coastal engineering evaluation to design the dike sections and armor stone slope protection; 3) Optimization of the dike design with consideration given to initial construction costs vs. long-term maintenance costs; 4) Spillway design and construction including hydrodynamic modeling to evaluate mixing requirements; 5) Use of a turbidity curtain in the water to prevent suspended sediment from migrating from the site; 6) Use of dike construction materials, especially borrow sources, to meet environmental criteria; 7) Incorporation of a geotechnical stabilization berm on the outside of the dike, constructed using recycled glass as granular fill and incorporating wick drains; 8) Restoration of a 12-acre tidal wetland area adjacent to the site as mitigation for filling open water, with hydrodynamic modeling to evaluate tidal flushing; 9) Construction of the interior portions of the dikes using dewatered dredged material from on-site; and 10) Construction of a 300-ft long `L-shaped' concrete pier for mechanical unloading of dredged material.

This paper presents a case study of a cost effective sediment remediation project that occurred in 2005/2006 at Operable Unit No. 2 (OU2) within the Point Potrero Marine Terminal (PPMT) at the Port of Richmond (the Port). The Port employed an innovative capping strategy for containing contaminated sediments in a marsh area. The paper discusses aspects of the cap design, complexities involved with environmental permitting, and contractor means and methods employed during construction. This paper concludes with a summary of consulting and construction contracting methods and cost. The project was completed by the Port with consulting assistance from Weiss Associates, ANWest Engineering, and Fugro West. Dutra Marine Construction performed construction activities.

Todd Pacific Shipyards (Todd) is a 28-acre facility at the northwest corner of Harbor Island in Seattle. Cleanup of contaminated sediments at Todd was required by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA; Superfund) Program. The project was designed and construction was managed by Floyd|Snider. Construction was performed by General Construction Company (GCC). The project work included dredging of approximately 169,000 cubic meters (220,000 cubic yards) of sediment, upland disposal of the recovered sediment, placement of sand caps below existing pier structures, and enhancement of nearshore aquatic habitat. Several components of the project were unique, including dredging and disposal of sediments with high water content, capping underneath existing pier structures, and implementation of all work within an operating shipyard. Recognition that construction would be difficult and that a conventional design/bid/build approach would be problematic led the management team to an early decision to promote a team approach for project design and construction. The cornerstone of this approach was use of a "Cost Plus Incentive Fee" contract for project construction, which successfully aligned the financial motivations of Todd and GCC and incentivized improvement of construction methods during the project. Tangible benefits included: 1) GCC was involved in shaping the final design, thereby ensuring the design was constructible and well matched to available equipment; 2) The cost contract removed financial risk from GCC, thereby reducing bid costs to cover unknown/unquantifiable risks; and 3) The sliding scale fee motivated GCC to keep costs low. Construction was completed in December 2005, 2 months ahead of schedule. The dredging was successful in achieving specified cleanup levels, returning the quality of marine sediments throughout the shipyard to pre-industrial levels. Final actual construction costs were less than the target cost, resulting in beneficial fee allocation to the contractor and an overall project cost savings for the owner.

New York Harbor requires dredging to provide adequate navigable depths for commercial shipping. Newark Bay is a major center for maritime activities in the Harbor. Sediment enters Newark Bay from upstream tributaries and downstream channels connected to the open harbor. The recently deposited surficial and suspended sediments in Newark Bay are highly mobile. A well-calibrated and validated three-dimensional mathematical model was used to investigate the movement of these sediments. The numerical simulations predicted that most of the sediments, which are re-suspended from the tidal flats or channel bottoms due to wind or tidal action, are being retained in Newark Bay proper and the lower reaches of the Passaic and Hackensack Rivers. The calculations indicated that bottom sediments can be eroded by flood currents and thereafter tend to resettle in the deepened navigation channels. The accumulated material is approximately equal in mass to the mass removed by the routine maintenance dredging. These sediments have been determined to be unsuitable for ocean placement because of contamination. Dredging has removed a substantial amount of contaminated sediment from the marine environment and placed it in confined sites or used it beneficially on land.

When Annapolis was chosen as a stop for the 2005–2006 Volvo Ocean Race (VOR), the premier round the world sailing yacht competition. City planners were tasked with preparing the City Harbor and Channel for the fleet's arrival in May 2006. Unlike previous VORs this planning would include dredging to support a new class of racing yacht 70-feet long, designed to draw 14.8 feet of water. This need sparked City officials who had for some time been contemplating increasing harbor depth to allow entrance of deeper draft vessels. Planners realized the cost associated with such work could be prohibitive to Annapolis' budget goals. To solve this potential dilemma, the City hired the design firm KCI Technologies, Inc. KCI and the City teamed to pursue a collaborative strategy to complete the work in parallel with environmental restoration efforts in the region. Initial concepts for the dredging and associated material placement were generated and advanced by KCI. At the same time, all necessary background information was compiled for the dredging including a material characteristics assessment, updates to hydrographic surveys, and consultation with VOR yacht design firms to assess controlling parameters. During the preliminary designs, Greenbury Point, owned by the U.S. Naval Academy was identified as a possible location for beneficial use of the dredged material. The Greenbury Point peninsula, located at the mouth of the Severn River, was identified because of its close proximity to Annapolis Harbor and the need for environmental restoration at the site, including stabilization of a potentially failing berm, existing fresh water ponds, and wetlands associated with an historic Dredge Material Placement (DMP) site. Greenbury point also contained opportunities for wetlands creation through dredge material placement utilization and reforestation. The team also recognized that the project could potentially serve as a model for local DMP. Local officials noted that the space availability for DMP sites, especially on the larger scale of regional DMP sites, is continuously being reduced through land development while capacity requirements remain at least stable. Based upon the preliminary designs, the City of Annapolis requested Congressional funding for the project through the Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration portion of the Water Resources Development Act (WRDA), also known as a Section 206 project. With the background data provided by the team, initial Congressional funding was allocated to the project with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) tasked with completing the work. After choosing several potential scenarios for advancing the project, KCI, Annapolis, and USACE assembled potential shareholders including the Maryland Port Administration (MPA), U.S. Naval Academy, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), Maryland Environmental Service (MES), and Anne Arundel County Soil Conservation Service to ascertain the potential benefits to the region from the project. By providing positive leadership and direction to the project, team leaders were able to forge a consensus among all partners through a mutually beneficial Collaborative Strategy approach. This Collaborative Strategy sought simply to provide a "win" for all involved team members. With a Collaborative Strategy in place, and with a strong interest in providing environmentally beneficial uses of dredged material, MPA agreed to earmark an existing DMP site for disposal of the Annapolis Harbor dredge material in exchange for participation in the Greenbury Point restoration portion of the project. In addition a time-optimized design for the dredging and material placement was produced which allowed the dredging of Annapolis Harbor to be completed in early 2006. During the same period KCI continued Section 206 project development based upon inputs of team members, drafting a Scope of Work and cost estimates for the entire project. This information was used to secure further funding from Congress from which design of the Section 206 portion of the project is currently advancing.

This paper presents methods for minimizing harbour siltation (MHS) which comprises the contents of chapter 4 of a forthcoming PIANC WG 43 report with the above title. The methods include 3 strategies: (1) KSO: Keep the sediment out, (2) KSM: Keep the sediment moving or, (3) KSN: Keep sediment navigable.

The Port of Brisbane Corporation is developing a world-class port facility at the mouth of the Brisbane River, Queensland, Australia. Located adjacent to Moreton Bay Marine Park and within Australia's fastest growing region, the need to ensure appropriate environmental management practices is integral to our operations. A key element of the Corporation's environmental responsibility is the effective management of stormwater generated from the site. As the first step towards developing a better understanding of the pollutant loads within our stormwater, the Corporation together with the Queensland University of Technology (QUT) undertook a series of rainfall simulation trials on various port land uses. Due to the unique nature of port operations, traffic types and storage modes, stormwater quality models used for typical urban land uses may not necessarily be applicable to port operations. Natural rainfall has high variability and unpredictability, and therefore the use of rainfall simulation can help to overcome these limitations with the ability to collect a large database in a short period of time. Using a specially designed rainfall simulator, twelve rainfall events typical to the region were simulated over a number of port specific land uses. Pollutant build-up and wash-off samples were collected and analysed for a range of potential stormwater pollutants. Preliminary testing indicates that surface build-up of pollutants within the port setting is comparable to that experienced in a commercial land use setting. However with the exception of zinc, wash-off pollutant concentrations are lower than that experienced within residential, commercial or industrial land use settings. Whilst sediment loads within the wash-off was higher than that reported for urban land uses, pollutants appeared bound to sediments, with the 0.75–75μm particle range being the most predominant. Therefore, water quality improvement strategies targeting the removal of suspended solids as a surrogate approach to removing pollutants may be valid. However, for any structural measures adopted for suspended solids removal to be effective, they should have the capability to remove specific particle size range/s. Consequently, stereo-typical device designs may not prove adequate in addressing this issue in port areas.

The sources of contaminates to the coastal marine environment are of increasing concern to those tasked with establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs). Shelter Island Yacht Basin (SIYB) in San Diego, California has a recently promulgated TMDL for dissolved copper. Recreational vessels are typically painted with copper-containing hull paint to inhibit marine fouling organisms. The passive input of copper to SIYB from anti-fouling paints has recently been studied. The objective of this study was to quantify both the dissolved and particulate fractions of copper emitted from copper-based anti-fouling coatings in situ as a result of routine active hull cleaning of recreational vessels. To accomplish this, in situ samples were collected using a specially designed enclosed chamber. Three different hull-cleaning methods were tested using two common paint formulations after one month and three months of natural fouling. The methods included minimally abrasive "best management practices" (BMPs) using a soft carpet, to more abrasive scouring pads and brushes. Hull cleaning generated an average emission rate of 10.0 μg/cm²/event of dissolved copper following one month of natural fouling. This compares similarly to an estimated 8.5 μg/cm²/event that was calculated in a related technical report (RWQCB, 2005). On a mass basis, the particulate copper loading from recreational vessels was estimated at 2,080 kg/year in SIYB. As a potential long term source in sediments, additional study is warranted to accurately assess the true copper loading on bottom sediments and potential impact to benthic life within SIYB.

In recent years, the impact of port related air emissions has become a major concern of ports, port communities and air quality regulators around the nation. The pressure to reduce port related emissions while also accommodating projected cargo increases is one of the most significant challenges facing U.S. ports today. It is a technological, legal and political challenge. This paper is intended to provide a broad overview of the port air emission issue and how it is changing the business of port planning, engineering, and construction.

The Port of Long Beach has approximately 3,400 acres of landside area in the cities of Long Beach and Los Angeles. Within this area, Port staff identified approximately 100 acres of undeveloped areas that require stabilization for soil erosion and dust control. In early 2005, the Port initiated a Portwide Storm Water Pollution Prevention and Dust Control Program to implement storm water and fugitive dust control measures in these areas. The program was divided into two phases, short-term (temporary measures) and long-term measures. The temporary measures phase began in early 2005 and will continue until the permanent measures are in place. Under the long-term program, a combination of different types of sustainable mitigation measures including, but not limited to, hydroseeding, placement of crushed miscellaneous base, hardscape, and sustainable landscape are being developed and implemented. Both the short and long-term mitigation measures are consistent with Port of Long Beach Master Storm Water Program and Green Port Policy for air and water quality. This paper describes both the short and long-term mitigation measures used for erosion control and storm water management in these undeveloped areas. Discussion focuses on the implementation of sustainable Best Management Practices (BMPs), and the challenges faced with the design and installation of the BMPs in those areas. Site preparation work included cleanup of the Port undeveloped areas by removing debris, abandoning utility poles, filling holes and abandoning water wells, as well as removing miscellaneous obstructions in these large dirt lots. Most of the areas required rough grading for storm water drainage prior to the installation of BMPs. The BMPs applied as temporary mitigation measures included silt fences, sand bags, rock barriers, and sediments control rolls for mitigating storm water runoff. This paper also includes the discussion of different types of soil stabilization materials used in stabilizing the surface dirt layer as a temporary dust mitigation measure. The Port of Long Beach considers the "Triple Bottom Line", the idea that economic vitality should be on an equal footing with environmental stewardship and community responsibility, as part of the decision making process in conducting Port business. The main discussion of the paper will be focused on the application of the principles of sustainability to the design and implementation of BMPs for the long-term mitigation measures.

The Port of Bellingham (Port) is working with state and federal agencies, the City of Bellingham (City) and project stakeholders to coordinated cleanup, redevelopment and habitat restoration projects on Bellingham's working waterfront. In support of the waterfront redevelopment vision, the Port recently acquired the 137-acre (55 hectare) properties of Georgia Pacific West Corporation (GP). These properties are located in the heart of the City's waterfront, and include the site of a recently-closed pulp mill, an operating tissue mill and related operations. GP had announced its intent to eventually close the tissue mill and had sought a buyer for the property. Transfer of the property to public ownership was identified by the community as the best way to ensure that redevelopment of the waterfront would be completed in a manner consistent with the needs of the community. Cleanup and habitat restoration actions are being coordinated with regulatory and resource agencies, local native American tribes and project stakeholders. The Port and City have initiated a program of area-wide land use planning to facilitate redevelopment of the properties. Current plans include two proposed projects described in this paper. These projects include 1) the cleanup and reconfiguration of the Whatcom Waterway, 2) the conversion of a former wastewater treatment basin into an environmentally sustainable state-of-the-art marina. The Whatcom Waterway is Bellingham's oldest federally authorized navigation channel. The configuration and depth of the channel has been modified several times since the early 1900s. Sediments in the waterway have been impacted from historical industrial operations, and site cleanup is required under Washington's Sediment Management Standards and Model Toxics Cleanup Act regulations. The proposed cleanup will involve multiple actions including dredging, capping, and natural recovery. Preliminary project plans involve 150,000 cubic yards (115,000 cubic meters) of dredging, with upland disposal in a subtitle D landfill as the preferred sediment disposal option. Capping of sediments is proposed for selected portions of the site where capping can be performed protectively, and where this is compatible with navigation and land use requirements. The wastewater treatment basin was constructed by Georgia Pacific in the late 1970s. The waterfront basin was constructed by dredging former tidelands to a depth of 12 feet (3.7 meters) below mean lower low water and installing a containment berm, outfall and aeration system. The berm encloses an area of approximately 28 acres (11 hectares) of aquatic land, including approximately 350,000 cubic yards (268,000 cubic meters) of accumulated wastewater treatment solids. The Port's proposed cleanup and redevelopment plans for the GP properties include the cleanout of the treatment solids, and the reconfiguration of the treatment basin for the development of a 350-slip state-of-the-art marina. Implementation of the aquatic cleanup, restoration and redevelopment actions is currently scheduled for 2007 to 2012. The success of these projects will depend on the continued coordination with and the support of regulatory and resource agencies, local Native American tribes and project stakeholders. Timing for the project may be affected by the availability of state and federal grant funds, and the scope and timing of other planning, redevelopment and environmental restoration projects being implemented by or in conjunction with the Port.

In the late 1990's the Port of Everett, Washington set in motion plans to re-develop the area where American Construction Company, Inc (American) and several other heavy industries were located as upscale condominiums, shops and restaurants. The Port gave American notice that they were exercising the year to year provisions of the lease and that American should vacate the property by the end of 2006. In early 2004 waterfront property was located on the Hylebos Waterway in Tacoma. However, the adjacent waterway had just started an extensive sediment remedial action under CERCLA and the property owner was one of many PRP's to the Mouth of the Hylebos cleanup. The owner of the property had notified the EPA he would not take part in the cleanup action and the EPA had placed an open lien on the property that exceeded it's fair market value. In addition, the NRD Trustees had notified the owner that Natural Resource Damages would be assessed at over $5 million. American's challenge was to acquire the property free from all liens and encumbrances brought about by the seller's intransigence. This effort effectively re-opened the ROD and Consent Decree. In less than three months, American and GeoMatrix performed extensive sediment characterization, redesigned the cleanup action from capping to dredging, and negotiated an indemnification agreement with the principal PRP's. American dredged 46,000 CM (60,000 CY) of contaminated sediments and disposed of them in the Port's Slip 1 CDF, and constructed a 92 M (300 foot) sheet pile bulkhead. The property was acquired free of all liens and encumbrances in December of 2004.

The Port of Brisbane is located adjacent to Moreton Bay Marine Park, an area of high conservation and ecological value. While the Bay supports a resident population of shorebirds, each September some 40,000 migratory shorebirds travel the East Australasian Flyway to Moreton Bay from breeding grounds in Siberia and Alaska. The significance of Moreton Bay for these shorebirds has been recognised through the declaration of several Ramsar-listed areas within the Bay. The reclamation paddocks created through the continued growth of the Port over the last 20 years has seen the area become a significant roosting site within Moreton Bay. Monitoring has indicated that more than 10,000 shorebirds are using these areas during the peak of the migratory season. The Port of Brisbane Corporation has actively managed these areas, mindful of the need to expand the port whilst acknowledging the significance of the shorebirds and the habitat created by the reclamation process. However, as the port expands and reclamation works are completed, the available roost sites will be significantly reduced. In recognition of this fact, the Corporation has designed, constructed and now manages one of the largest constructed shorebird roosting sites in Australia. This site is unique in several ways, including its combination of conservation and educational values, innovative site management techniques and full disabled access to the hides within the site. The balance between port operational efficiency, sound planning and environmental stewardship, has seen this 12-hectare site become a favoured site for both migratory shorebirds and keen bird watchers. This paper presents the planning, design and construction challenges faced by the Corporation in developing this unique site within one of Australia's fastest growing ports. It discusses the site's design and construction issues, outlines the process of community engagement and business acceptance in relation to striking a balance between development and conservation.

The Port of Everett, Washington, undertook to design, permit, and construct a significant new eight hundred foot marine facility in support of major new aerospace industrial activities in the central Puget Sound region. The substantial role of federally recognized Treaty Tribes in the regulatory process for the project provided a unique lesson into Tribal Treaty Rights issues and federal permitting for marine-related activities in Indian country. The Tribal Governments in Puget Sound are fully mature governments with whom mutually respectful government-to-government relationships from a port and local government perspective are essential. Resolution of the Tribal issues in the regulatory processes for the facility required a sophisticated policy process involving the Port staff and technical consultants, Port commissioners, Tribal leaders, strong state leadership, and community support.

Upgrading infrastructure in advance of the next generation of container ships requires advanced planning and assumptions. Since the Port of Long Beach is strategically located to receive the largest Pacific Ocean vessels, an analysis of the impacts from the next generation of vessels on their infrastructure was conducted, which looked at the marine-side requirements for a 12,000+ TEU vessel such as channel and berth dimensions plus wharf infrastructure. Additionally, landside infrastructure was assessed for needed improvements including terminal size and equipment needs. The resulting recommendations laid out a schedule of additional studies plus design and construction documents to pursue over a 15-year horizon.

The adding of capacity with greater service potential and flexibility is the path that the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) has chosen to continue the Canal's success in the maritime business. Much of the paper focuses on the "how" of the chosen path; however, insight into the "why" of this path is quite useful in providing a firm foundation to comprehend the how. In order to understand the "why" you first need to be aware of the Canal's historical market drivers versus today's drivers. Hence, this paper about the future — begins with the past.

The Port of Tacoma 2010 Study identifies major development along the Blair Waterway to meet future container cargo shipping demands. The need to widen the Blair Waterway was identified as critical to allow the next generation of container ships access to the full length of the waterway, to facilitate expansion of an existing terminal at the head of the waterway, and to develop future marine terminals adjacent to the waterway. The project included dredging over 2 million cubic yards of material at two separate locations. A key component of the design included reclaiming enough of the dredged materials to raise the elevation of an adjacent Port-owned property in preparation for future marine terminal development. This paper describes the technical challenges associated with the project, including demolition, tenant relocation issues, material handling, excavation/filling sequencing, and project phasing.

The Inner Harbor Turning Basin (IHTB) is a critical component of the –50 Foot Project (Project) at the Port of Oakland (ranked 4^th nationally, 20^th worldwide), located in San Francisco Bay, California. The Project was authorized in the Federal Water Resources Development Act of 1999 at a cost of $252,290,000 (Federal/non-Federal share of $128,081,000/$124,209,000). Construction started in September 2001 and included expanding and deepening: the Harbor Entrance, Outer and Inner Harbor channels and turning basins. The IHTB project expands the 1200 foot diameter turning circle to 1500 feet and deepens the Federal channel to –50 feet Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW). The expansion required demolition of nearby structures, for which the Port of Oakland successfully negotiated agreements with the City of Alameda, and agreements with impacted landowners and businesses to secure the necessary lands, easements, rights-of-way and relocations. Stakeholders include the Port of Oakland, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Coast Guard, contractors, the San Francisco Bar Pilots, and impacted businesses located near the IHTB.

During the course of a major harbor dredging project it was learned that three ten-inch diameter, high-pressure gas lines traversing the Federal Channel may not have been buried to the proper depths. After researching the plans of record on the subject gas line, the USACOE found that the originally permitted burial depths of the pipeline conflicted significantly with two more recent electronic surveys that had been performed. Several more surveys using electronic methods of locating the pipes were attempted; however, because of site constrictions and the pipeline configuration, functionally repeatable results could not be obtained. Because electronic surveys had not produced consistent results, the owner and the USACOE turned to the most reliable method — that of unearthing portions of the pipe, however the Channel depths, the pipe cover and port traffic made this a formidable task. The following case study documents how this task was accomplished.

Reducing or eliminating long period swell wave effects in harbors has long been a problem. The longer period action has the ability to penetrate deeply into basins and can cause harmonic seiching action if the wave lengths are tuned to the basin dimensions. Various techniques have been attempted to dampen or reduce the swell action including: large breakwaters, creating entrance channels with resonators, or devising wave damping shoreline edges. For the design of a new marina in Costa Rica, these traditional solutions were considered, and in most cases, discarded due to extreme water depth issues limiting what could be constructed, and also concern about triggering harbor resonance. The solution for defeating the problem laid in the careful consideration of the specific geometry designed for the marina harbor.

The Canaveral Port Authority is conducting a feasibility study of navigation improvements under the authority granted by Section 203 of Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) 1986. Section 203 of WRDA 1986 provides a mechanism whereby non-Federal interests can undertake, on their own, a feasibility study of harbor improvements and then submit it to the USACE. The focus of the study is to investigate the feasibility of widening the channel, expanding the entrance to the West Turning Basin (WTB), establishing a new turning circle within the WTB, and deepening the West Access Channel and WTB. As part of the Section 203 Feasibility Report, an Engineering Appendix was prepared that detailed the results of the engineering investigations needed to support the formulation of alternative plans and to support the selected plan. This paper will focus on the portions of the Engineering Appendix that investigated the design vessel determination, the hydraulic modeling of the port, and the impact of the navigation improvements on the existing wharves, bulkhead walls, rip-rap embankments and spoil containment dikes. Solutions to the impact on the waterfront structures, ranging from strengthening to replacement, for each alternative plan will be presented. Finally, for the selected navigation improvement plan, the recommended solutions for the various waterfront structures will be presented.

Port authorities and the environmental community are seeking innovative ways to conduct remediation of contaminated sediments. The primary method of contaminated sediment remediation today is dredging. Dredging creates challenges in residual contamination and finding areas to construct confined disposal facilities. In-situ capping involves the placing of a subaqueous cover over contaminated sediments to stabilize sediments, minimize their re-suspension and transport, and reduce dissolved contaminant transport into surface waters. In past applications, in-situ capping has typically been constructed with several feet of locally available clean sediment, sand and/or gravel. In-situ capping can be limited by concerns regarding navigation, uniform cap placement, bio-intrusion and geotechnical stability. A potential solution for many in-situ capping concerns is the use of a reactive material cap. Reactive or adsorptive materials can provide treatment of the contaminants while allowing upward groundwater flow. Modeling has shown that a reactive material cap can greatly reduce the thickness required for the cap compared to conventional sand caps. Various reactive materials (e.g., activated carbon, apatite, organoclay) are used for wastewater and groundwater treatment and may be applicable to in-situ capping. Activated carbon and organoclay effectively adsorb many organic compounds. Apatite and zeolite adsorb and complex many different metals. These reactive materials may be placed in bulk. Alternatively, a reactive material mat that encapsulated reactive material between two geotextiles has additional benefits of stability, defined mass per area and reduced biointrusion. Several case studies of reactive material mat and bulk reactive material placement in waterways in Michigan, Oregon and Washington, D.C. are presented.

A two-dimensional, depth-integrated tidal model for the Loxahatchee River estuary (Southeastern Florida) is enhanced by examining its sensitivity to: 1) domain extent; 2) advection. The region of interest is modeled with three variations of an unstructured, finite element mesh, including a localized mesh with and without tidal flats, and an extended mesh describing the AIW. Phase and amplitude errors between model output and historical data are quantified at five locations within the Loxahatchee River estuary to assess the performance of the various computational meshes. While it is shown that the tidal flats provide some benefit to the numerical model, the hydrodynamics resulting from the extension of the AIW permit for a more significant improvement of the simulation results. In addition, globally computed velocity residuals reveal significantly different net circulation patterns within the Loxahatchee River estuary, depending on the spatial coverage of the AIW, and further demonstrate the importance of including the AIW in the numerical model. Finally, rotational residual flows generated offshore and within the Loxahatchee River estuary, for when the advective terms are considered, indicate that advection is a contributory factor in the long-term tidal circulation occurring within the estuarine, coastal, and continental shelf waters found along the east coast of Florida.

Laboratory tests were conducted to measure the loads on a moored ship resulting from a passing ship moving parallel to the moored vessel. The tests included changes in the passing vessel speed, vessel displacement, water depth, and separation distance between the two ships. Measurements were made of the surge forces, sway forces, and yaw moments. Two existing predictive models were evaluated in "blind" tests to determine their ability to predict the measured mooring loads. A new set of empirical equations are then proposed that provide improved descriptions of the measured peak mooring loads.

The present paper describes the analysis of ferry wake wash along a proposed route between San Francisco and a new ferry terminal at Hercules. The steady wave field generated by a candidate catamaran ferry was calculated for a range of vessel speeds and water depths, using established computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques. The matrix of cases analyzed span the range of vessel speeds (5 to 35 knots) and water depths (3 to 32 m) anticipated for ferry service along the proposed route. The free-wave spectra which fully characterize the ship-generated wave system in the far field are also calculated and presented, including for shallow-water cases. The calculated ferry wakes and the free-wave spectra enable the propagation and transformation of the wave system into the far field over varying bathymetry, so that the impact of ferry wakes on the shoreline may be studied. The analysis is part of a broader "shoreline and biological response" approach to wake wash impact analysis. The approach contains site-specific elements, but the process may also be applied to evaluate wake wash impact of specific, yet-to-be-built ferries on other future routes.

This paper presents initial results from field observations of harbour resonance at Marina di Carrara harbour (Italy) within a research project commissioned by the local Port Authority. The measurement station is operational since October 2005 and provides the Port Authority with immediate and important information on the accessibility and navigation of the harbour, including real-time monitoring of the wave field both outside and inside the harbour. Observations carried out in the winter 2005/2006 are analysed by means of well established and relatively new techniques, demonstrating some of the non-stationary and non-linear features of the resonant process. Initial measurements are compared with predictions by a numerical wave model based on Boussinesq-type equations. The model is able to describe both the non-stationary and the non-linear features of the process.

The hydrodynamics of conceptual marina basin geometries were studied for optimum basin size and shape maximizing water circulation and minimize wave agitation. It was found that aspect ratio of unity is better; simple curved basin corners suffice; offset entrance to one side maximizes circulation, wide entrance openings do not flush any better.

This paper describes the development, verification and application of the next-generation Vessel Hydrodynamics Propwash Unsteady (VH-PU) numerical model. The VH-PU model was developed by Coast & Harbor Engineering, Inc. (CHE) and the Ukraine Center for Water and Environmental Projects (UCEWP) within the framework of a federal grant from the United States Civilian Research and Development Foundation (CRDF). The model simulates three-dimensional velocity fields generated by ship propellers in a domain of arbitrary bottom and coastal topography. The model was validated using a high-quality set of laboratory data and it was further verified using two sets of field data. Both laboratory and field verifications show excellent agreement between measured and simulated velocity profiles. The model proved to be an excellent tool for the evaluation of potential impacts from propeller wash (propwash) on several locations, among which: Port Townsend Ferry Terminal, for evaluation of eelgrass impacts of terminal expansion, and the Lockheed Terminal, for evaluation of contaminated sediment capping design criteria, both in Puget Sound, WA.

The Bolivar Ferry Terminal Sediment and Shoaling Study aimed at understanding the cause of the ongoing shoaling and sedimentation within two existing ferry landings and determine the effects of adding a third landing with a reconfigured breakwater system. Compounding the shoaling effects was the proximity of the dredge material placement area located less than 1,000 feet south of the terminal. Already under construction (2005–2007) shoaling was an ongoing concern highlighted by the planned reconfiguration of the ferry terminal. The Galveston-Bolivar Ferry service, located in Galveston County Texas, provides transportation between Galveston Island and Bolivar Peninsula for local residents and tourists using up to six ferries. The Bolivar Ferry Terminal is sited within the throat of the Galveston Inlet where tidal velocities are at a maximum, increasing deposition within the supporting structures of the ferry landings. Determining the complex forces in and around the ferry terminal, for longshore transport, a hydrodynamic model was utilized to analyze and provide solutions for several short term and long term circulation issues. The placement of future dredge material and the resolve of the appropriate reconfiguration to reduce or eliminate the shoaling within the terminal were two of the primary issues.

The Amazon River mouth represents a critical pass for navigation at one of the most important waterways in Brazil. Besides the economic importance of diminishing the uncertainties of establishing the navigation depth, there is a strong concern about the threat of oil spills and its environmental impact in this particular system. This work addresses to two related issues: the migration of sand banks and the difficulties related to sounding reduction. At the mouth region, the current loss of transport capacity propitiates sand deposition which will contribute to the reduction of depths and the formation of banks. Bathymetric records were analyzed and it was observed sand bank movement of approximately 250 m/year. However, anything could be concluded about the periodicity of the bank change of migration direction and its causes. In addition to the bottom variability, there is an intrinsic difficulty for establishing the reference level due to the region's great dimensions, variability and magnitude of the tides and river discharge which influences mean sea water level and tidal amplitudes. The sounding reduction is currently done by the Brazilian Navy through a simplified method. In order to estimate the expected depth differences through the use of a more realistic method, a hydrodynamic numerical model was implemented in the area. The mean differences observed, for low river discharge, were 1.14m and maximum differences reached almost 3m (both negatives and positives), which are significant values for such a critical area.

Larger and faster-moving deep-draft vessels in narrow waterways create pressure fields that can cause significant hydrodynamics loads on berthed vessels and shoreline structures, interrupt loading and unloading operations and cause structural damage. The Vessel Hydrodynamics Longwave Unsteady (VH-LU) and Longwave Load (VH-LL) numerical models were developed to assist in analysis of these vessel hydrodynamic problems. The modeling system development and ongoing verification efforts described here were performed by Coast & Harbor Engineering (CHE) and the Ukrainian Center of Environmental & Water Projects (UCEWP) under a grant from the U.S. Civilian Research & Development Foundation (CRDF). The hydrodynamic loads generated by passing vessel long-waves on berthed vessels or coastal structures are calculated using the VH-LL module, using hydrodynamic data output from the VH-LU model. Model hydrodynamic verifications with field data are described, including data from the Port of Oakland Inner Harbor Waterway, CA and Mississippi River Gulf Outlet, LA. The present paper also presents a verification of the hydrodynamics and berthed vessel load calculation module system performed using large-scale physical model data collected in the Netherlands Ship Model Basin reported by Remery (1974).

The Port of Corpus Christi Authority plans to improve its channel by deepening, widening, and extending the Corpus Christi Ship Channel, thereby allowing it to diversify its cargo base. The channel improvement project includes the construction of a rock breakwater which serves as an ecosystem restoration feature to provide shoreline erosion protection. This hydrodynamic modeling study was conducted to evaluate passing vessels' effects on breakwater and surrounding area. The vessel hydrodynamic modeling was performed with the Vessel Hydrodynamics Longwave Unsteady numerical model which calculates detailed ship-induced water surface elevation fluctuations and current velocities within a variable-bathymetry domain. Tanker hull geometries were developed that are typical of those found in the Corpus Christi Ship Channel. Containership and LNG vessel hulls were used that are typical of those proposed for after the port expansion. The methods applied in the study provide a means of determining relative impacts of channel modifications and new vessel traffic. Changes in water surface elevations and current velocities generated by the vessel were evaluated for existing and post-project conditions. The local impacts were categorized by location and primary impact mechanism (i.e. channel improvements vs. breakwater construction).

A three-dimensional (3-D) water quality model for the Charleston Harbor System (CHS), South Carolina, is being developed for the Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Council of Governments (BCD-COG) to assist in developing the dissolved oxygen Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL). A series of linked models were developed to represent watershed flows, instream hydrodynamics, and instream water quality in the system. The ultimate goal of the 3-D water quality model is to develop a management tool to determine the TMDL and wasteload allocation strategies for the Charleston Harbor System. The water quality model will engage all stakeholders including the industries, local governments, and regulators in establishing the assimilative capacity of oxygen-consuming pollutants. The hydrodynamics of the CHS are largely influenced by incoming tides, salinity, and vegetated marshes. The CHS drains over 1,200 square miles directly, with a larger area contributing freshwater flow to Lake Moultrie, the largest contributor of freshwater flow to the Cooper River. Changing water levels, salinity, and marshes increase the complexity of the dynamics of dissolved oxygen in the system. The CHS EFDC model extends beyond the main Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, up the Wando River just downstream of Guerins Bridge Road, up the Cooper River to Pinopolis Dam, up the East Branch of the Cooper River, up to the dam on Goose Creek, and up the Ashley River to US Hwy 17. The model was calibrated and validated using monitoring data collected in 2004 and in 1996 and several special studies.

The Port of Los Angeles has experienced significant growth in recent history and cargo forecasts suggest that continued growth should be anticipated. No matter how well cargo is handled at the docks it could be constrained on congested highways and railways once it leaves the terminal. In addition, some of the most significant quality of life impacts to neighboring communities occur as a result of transportation issues. The primary purpose of this planning study is to plan for projected cargo growth so that the impacts of increasing cargo volumes on the transportation system are understood and addressed. This paper gives a broad overview of the entire transportation master planning process which developed unique approaches and planning tools to address challenges.

The Georgia Ports Authority (GPA) anticipates that container throughput at the Garden City Terminal will grow significantly over the next 15 to 20 years. In fiscal year 2006 the facilities handled 2,032,000 TEUs (Twenty Foot Equivalent Units) of which approximately 20% was handled at the intermodal facilities. It is anticipated that the throughput will more than double in the planning horizon and the GPA is in the process of developing a Facilities Master Plan to meet the demand. One critical aspect of the facilities master plan is ensuring that the intermodal facilities are adequate to handle the projected growth, while maintaining the competitive environment that exists among the two serving railroads. The Garden City Terminal is currently served by Norfolk-Southern and CSX with both having on-dock facilities which eliminates drayage and marshalling costs. Currently, the GPA has separate distinct intermodal facilities with Norfolk-Southern servicing the James D. Mason Intermodal Container Transfer Faciility (ICTF) and CSX providing service on tracks that are oriented perpendicular to the berths in the container yard. The rails in the container yard present a significant challenge operationally and for densification. This paper provides a discussion of the overall planning process that was undertaken and the alternatives that were developed which included a combined ICTF facility in the Mason ICTF and/or independent separate facilities. The considerations that entered into the decision included connectivity to existing rails, advantages with regards to labor and equipment at a single facility, and overall costs. The final result was a decision to pursue separate independent facilities in the short-term and a combined facility in the long-term. The James D. Mason ICTF will consist of twelve working tracks (32,800 total feet) and 34,600 feet of storage track. The current facility consists of four 2,500 foot working tracks, one 2,500 foot runaround track, and two 2,500 foot storage tracks. The Chatham Yard ICTF will consist of three working tracks (6,300 total feet) and 10,000 feet of storage track. Additionally, each ICTF was planned to allow the GPA the flexibility to continue utilizing top picks to load and unload the rail cars into the near future and then to convert to rubber-tired gantries (RTG's) or rail mounted gantries (RMG's). A typical plan and cross-section of each ICTF will be provided.

The San Pedro Bay Ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles are the two busiest container ports in the country, and combined they are among the top five ports in the world. One of the key attractions for shippers to San Pedro Bay is the excellent rail connections available to access the rest of the country. Projected cargo growth will require capacity improvements to Port rail yards and rail network infrastructure as well as the Class I railroad corridors. The Port is changing rapidly due to increased cargo flows, community pressures, new legislation governing transportation behavior, and new operating modes developed to deal with the freight volumes. Therefore, the two Ports are collaborating on a Rail Enhancement Program to provide an update to a previous Rail Master Plan. The primary purpose of this study is to reduce truck traffic with its associated congestion and emissions impacts and maximize use of rail. The Rail Enhancement Program (REP) considers projected cargo growth so that the impacts of increasing cargo volumes on the rail system are understood; and improvements can be analyzed, designed, evaluated and developed to address these impacts. Improvements include rail operations, rail yards and rail network infrastructure. The REP includes over forty individual projects. The steps of the REP development process include the following: 1) Conceptual design and capacity analysis of potential rail yard projects; 2) Scheduling of rail yard developments to meet demand considering environmental processes, design, contracting and construction requirements; 3) Simulation modeling of rail network operations to establish a 2005 Baseline, identify future deficiencies, and plan phased improvements; 4) Evaluation of rail yard and rail network improvement concepts based on feasibility and environmental impact metrics; and 5) Plan implementation (agency coordination, regulatory compliance, funding, and sustainability).

Ever increasing container volumes at ports along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts are taxing the transportation infrastructure beyond its capacity in and around the ports. Ports are faced not only with increased container volumes, but also with the task of increasing the percentage of containers moved by rail to relieve regional highway congestion. This increased focus on rail has resulted in a compound growth of intermodal containers moving by rail and is outpacing the general increase in container volume moving through the ports. Recent port developments have generally addressed the needs for dock-to-rail transfers only to discover shortfalls in the next step of the transportation chain. The ability of Port Intermodal Yards (IYs) to meet their design throughput is dependent upon the ability of the railroads to serve these facilities and the overall capacity and velocity of the entire transportation network. In many cases, the development of the IYs has preceded improvements to other aspects of this transportation chain including the rail connections serving these facilities. Planning must go beyond the interface between the pier and rail and address a balanced approach to rail network development within the region and their connections with rail carriers. This paper will discuss the elements of the rail service that must be considered while planning on-dock or near-dock intermodal facilities; specifically the geometry and quantity of rail support facilities relative to the size of the intermodal facility. Actual case study data from three separate and unique ports within the USA will be presented.

In 1992, a UN conference on Environmental Development held in Rio de Janeiro reintroduced the concept of "sustainability"(advanced by the United Nations Commission on Environment and Development [UNCED] in 1987) and defined it as: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." A year later the U.S. Green Building Council was established to formalize this concept by developing a green rating system — "Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design" (LEED), applicable to new and renovated buildings. The system utilizes 69 certification points dealing with sustainable sites, water efficiency, energy and atmosphere, materials and resources, air quality and innovation. Recently, several investigators, including this author, extended the applicability of sustainability to environmental science and engineering studies. This paper deals with sustainable port development and operation. During the last two decades, several ports introduced "Green Ports" programs to promote environmental stewardship. The paper depicts several examples and shows how these and more advanced programs can be made to fit a sustainability framework. Eight specific port operational topics (dredging, ballast water, habitat restoration, air quality, water conservation, energy conservation, material conservation and waste handling) are discussed using a sustainability perspective. It is believed that employment of a holistic approach and adaptive management built around a sustainability framework can promote innovative thinking, collaboration, consensus building and streamline regulatory mandates. While incorporation of some sustainability elements can increase initial costs, they can yield substantial life cycle savings resulting from lower energy and water consumption and wastewater and emissions production, lower O&M costs and savings from increased productivity and health. The paper cites port initiatives advanced by the Port of New York and New Jersey to show how this approach can be propagated to create a clean and green system that is self-pollinating and rewards heavily. Sustainability is an ideal stewardship-driven alternative to the reactive and piecemeal regulatory-driven modes of yesteryear.

The Bayport Terminal Complex, to be owned and operated by the Port of Houston Authority, encompasses approximately 1,100 acres of currently undeveloped property. The site lies south of the Bayport Ship Channel, approximately 20 miles east of Houston, Texas. The Bayport Ship Channel, which has a nominal dredged depth of –40 feet mean low tide, links the site to Galveston Bay and the Houston Ship Channel. The complex is being developed in phases over an estimated 10–20 year period, and at full development will include seven container berths, three cruise terminals, a multi-use co-development area, an intermodal railyard, and storage facilities. Construction of the facility was initiated in June 2004 with the issuance of contracts for a 60-acre container yard and approximately 2,000 feet of adjacent wharf. Subsequent container facility projects followed including an electrical substation, the gate complex, road and pipeline relocations, additional container yard, and permanent administration, maintenance, and repair buildings. In addition, construction of the first phase of the Bayport Cruise Terminal Complex, which will be completed under four separate contracts for an estimated cost totaling $85 million, began in 2006. In summary, seventeen independent construction contracts have been initiated to date as part of the Bayport facility development totaling $400–$450 million.

The issue of sustainable design for buildings and the built environment is growing in the public's attention throughout the country. The rising costs of energy, automotive fuels and utility power point to the fact that many of our primary resources have limited capacity that may not be available at today's levels to future generations. The rising popularity of fuel efficient and low emission vehicles, alternative energy sources, and efficiently operating buildings, indicates society's interest in responding to these limitations. Concerns over availability of natural resources, world pollution, global warming, and climate change are also high in the public's attention. This paper will address the current movement of designing sustainable buildings specific to container terminal and marine terminal use. It will look at newly formed policies by West Coast port authorities to "build green", and the first projects to be developed under these directives. It is foreseeable that these ongoing efforts will soon apply to other port facilities around the nation in the near future. Sustainable strategies can also be applied beyond the design of terminal buildings to include converting the power and fuel use of container handling equipment mentioned above and the installation of power generation equipment on the terminal property.

Maher Terminals formerly operated two separate facilities at the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey's (PANYNJ's) Elizabeth Marine Terminal. The Fleet Street Facility was primarily a straddle-carrier container operation. The Tripoli Street Terminal was a combination wheeled operation and top-pick grounded operation. In 1998, the PANYNJ, in conjunction with Maher and the other terminal tenants developed a master plan that allowed Maher to consolidate the two separate terminals into one 445-acre terminal on the Northeast corner of the Elizabeth Peninsula. The new terminal is a fully grounded straddle-carrier operation. By April 2006, construction associated with the consolidation was over 90 percent complete, and the terminal was being operated as one contiguous facility. The new facility is the largest container terminal on the east coast and will include over 10,000 feet of contiguous berth, a fleet of 17 container cranes (including 11 super-Panamax cranes), 990 reefer outlets, a paperless gate system designed to process more than 10,000 moves per day, a web-enabled computerized terminal management system, satellite empty container storage and dispatch, an adjacent co-op chassis pool, and direct access to an on-dock intermodal rail facility. This paper will discuss the details of the reconstruction, the challenges with implementing them in the midst of an operating terminal (with continuously increasing throughput), and innovations to facilitate operations.

The comprehensive study performed to develop long-term, site-specific shallow water wave hindcasts at a Baja California LNG terminal is described. These hindcasts were developed at specific locations around the terminal, which allowed for the evaluation of breakwater/no breakwater alternatives, calculation of extreme waves for breakwater design, breakwater layout optimization from the standpoint of wave agitation at the berth, and the determination of the long-term impact of the terminal on shoreline changes.

British Columbia's north coast is experiencing a dramatic resurgence in port-related activity after more than two decades of relatively little growth. An unprecedented number of major new port projects are at various stages of planning, design, and construction. The rugged nature of BC's north coast poses numerous engineering challenges, while the regulatory environment presents challenges of its own. Besides the comprehensive environmental assessment process, oil and gas terminal projects are also subject to a Canadian federal review known as the "Termpol review process" (TRP) that focuses on shipping and navigation safety issues. This paper presents a case history of two projects planned for the region—the Kitimat Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) facility and the Enbridge Gateway projects—and focuses on some of the challenging design aspects, as well as the TRP process for oil and gas terminals. These two projects, along with others planned for area, will bring welcome new development and have the potential to transform the entire regional economy.

As domestic oil supplies continue to dwindle over the coming decade, California must import nearly 1 million barrels per day of crude in order to meet the demand. The demand for crude oil is forecasted to rise by 20 percent over the next ten years even after accounting for the increased efficiencies of consumption and the rising popularity of alternative fuel and hybrid vehicles. To help meet this demand, independent pipeline and terminal operator Pacific Energy Partners is proposing to construct a Crude Oil Import Terminal on Pier 400 (Berth 408) at the Port of Los Angeles with the capacity to import 250,000 barrels per day. While other papers are focusing specifically on the challenging structural issues associated with this terminal, this paper highlights the broader technical, environmental, and political challenges faced during the course of the project development. As the first marine oil terminal to be constructed in California since 1984, the design criteria and approach to safety and spill prevention paved new ground that will set the standard for future facilities of this type. The terminal design incorporated many state-of-the-art systems and features, exceeding regulatory requirements in many cases, including: 1) Laser-assisted Docking Aid System; 2) Quick Release Mooring Hooks With Integral Load Monitoring and Staged Alarm; 3) Unloading Arms With Quick Connect/Disconnect Couplers; 4) Real-time Environmental and Seismic Sensor Monitoring; 5) Gangway Tower With Integral Position Monitoring and Staged Alarm; 6) Redundant Fire Protection System; 7) Distillate Fuel Loading System to Tankers For Cleaner Emissions; 8) Emergency Shutdown System; and 9) Systems Integration For Effective Operator Control. In addition, several state-of-the-art analyses performed during the course of the planning and design phase of the project are discussed herein, including: 1) Berth Availability Due to Wind and Wave Conditions; 2) Passing Vessel Motion Analyses; 3) Tsunami Hazard Analysis; 4) Seismic Structural Analysis Per New MOTEMS Requirements; and 5) Structural and Piping Stress Analysis. Lastly, the design of the terminal involved many challenges, some of which are unique to the modern permitting environment in California. The challenges and hurdles discussed herein include: 1) Regulatory and Permitting Hurdles; 2) Political Challenges; and 3) Alternative Marine Power Challenges. This facility incorporates all the requirements of the new Marine Oil Terminal Engineering and Maintenance Standards (MOTEMS) that were recently promulgated by the California State Lands Commission, Marine Facilities Division. These new standards address structural and geotechnical seismic analysis and design, berthing and mooring system design, electrical and mechanical systems design, pipeline design and fire detection, prevention, and suppression design. The features and systems incorporated into the terminal design, and the rigorous analyses conducted to understand and justify the design, culminate in the most modern marine oil terminal ever to be constructed in the United States that should ensure the safe and environmentally conscious oil supply to the state of California over the coming decades.

LNG marine terminals generally contain a jetty, a material offload facility and berthing provisions for tugs. This paper reviews some of the key characteristics of these facilities and in particular concentrates on areas where they differ from other bulk loading terminals. The topics addressed include a) material offload facility (MOF) requirements b) LNG vessel criteria c) the specific mooring requirements for LNG vessels and the impact of these requirements on the facility design d) combined LNG /LPG and condensate terminals and e) LNG piping requirements. In addition, comment is provided on the general features of LNG terminals and on the more common structural solutions.

The cruise industry in Southeast Alaska has helped to augment traditional resource-based economies such as the fishing and timber industries. During the cruise season, Ketchikan with a population of 8,000, has an influx of 2,500 to 10,000 cruise passengers every day. The City of Ketchikan recently embarked on a rehabilitation and improvement project along the downtown waterfront to maintain and rehabilitate their existing cruise vessel berthing facility. This project was managed to provide the greatest economic benefit to the community and improve the existing facilities in order to maintain the cruise vessel berthing facilities that are so vital to Ketchikan's economy. This paper and presentation will discuss: 1) The evolution of the economic situation in Ketchikan from resource-based economies to tourism; 2) Contracting strategies that help the local economy; and 3) Technical aspects of rehabilitating an existing pier and constructing a new pier in downtown Ketchikan during an Alaskan winter.

Prior to the development of the recently constructed Brooklyn Cruise Terminal, the Passenger Ship Terminal (PST) located on the Hudson River in Manhattan, NY was New York City's only cruise terminal and consisted of four piers built between 1932 and 1935. With the advent of large post panamax cruise ships, modifications to the terminal were required to accommodate the increased passenger volumes as well as larger ships. To address these issues, the New York City Economic Development Corporation (NYCEDC) formulated a master plan which entailed upgrading the PST and redeveloping Pier 12 located in Brooklyn from an industrial facility into a second cruise terminal. The marine engineering works for both projects were similar and consisted of tasks to determine the condition of the existing marine facilities through above and below water inspections, evaluation of existing data, design of repairs and upgrade alternatives to meet the present and future needs of the facilities, and the production of detailed designs and contract documents. Both terminals had to be substantially upgraded to accommodate ships such as the Queen Mary 2 (QM2) which imposed significantly larger berthing loads than the facilities were originally designed to resist. At the Brooklyn Cruise Terminal, design solutions entailed concrete encasement pile repairs and constructing five new breasting dolphins, one mooring dolphin and two onshore mooring structures. At the PST, design solutions entailed concrete encasement pile repairs and constructing two new piers with one located on each side of Pier 88 to resist the ship loads and to provide a greater deck area to enhance terminal functionality. To meet the tight schedule for both projects, the marine works had to be completed prior to the design of the terminal buildings and other terminal facilities. This sequencing led to significant design changes late in the design development and construction phases. Strong correspondence and communication between the marine engineers, architects and other consultants was critical to provide quick solutions and meet the project deadlines.

Over the past 10 years, the Port of Houston has been planning and permitting a Container Terminal and Cruise Terminal Complex at their Bayport site in Houston, Texas. As the cruise business has continued to expand throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Western Caribbean, the Port of Houston authorized development of a Master Plan for a 130 acre portion of the Bayport Complex dedicated to cruise passenger terminals and related co-development. The Master Plan includes: (1) Three Cruise Terminals, nearly 3,500 LF of berth, (2) over 4,000 parking spaces, and (3) Sites for co-development uses such as retail, entertainment venues, restaurants, and other attractions. At full build-out, the Bayport Cruise Terminal Complex will have modern purpose built capacity to handle up to three (3) mega cruise ships simultaneously making this complex a significant player in the United States cruise market, ranking with Port of Miami, Port Everglades and Port Canaveral, New Orleans, and Tampa. The Port of Houston's cruise expansion will lead to a significant expansion in the Gulf cruise market. In addition to the Master Plan, the Port of Houston authorized design of the first cruise terminal and wharf of the Bayport Cruise Complex Master Plan. This paper highlights the Site and Facilities Master Plan as prepared for the Port of Houston for the Cruise Terminal Complex. The first phase of the Cruise Master plan is under-construction and expected to open in Spring 2007.

The Island of Cozumel is rapidly becoming one of Mexico's most popular tourist destinations. Growth of Cozumel tourism is due in large part to the recent expansion of its cruise industry, with the number of sailings, size of vessels, and terminal infrastructure all increasing dramatically over the last 10 years. But like many coastal communities around the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, Cozumel's cruise industry was very hard hit during the hurricane season of 2005, and in particular by Hurricane Wilma. Of the three major cruise piers in Cozumel, one was completely destroyed, another was extensively damaged and shutdown for several months' worth of repairs, and the subject facility was so severely damaged that its complete replacement was considered. This paper discusses the damage to one of the Cozumel cruise terminals resulting from Hurricane Wilma and the recovery efforts immediately following the storm, the temporary repairs made to get back into operation as quickly as possible, and the design and construction of the replacement pier. Particular emphasis is placed on the behavior of the existing facility and the reasons why it and other similar facilities in the area were so susceptible to this storm.

This paper highlights the design of a concrete marine trestle across a sensitive environmental area in the Puget Sound of Washington State, at the Washington State Ferries (WSF) Anacortes terminal. Operational requirements and environmental restrictions are described, emphasizing the challenges and issues surrounding the layout and selection of the trestle system with transfer span for vehicles. Features of the civil and structural design approach are explained, and a constructability review of the trestle is also described, including equipment proposed for the work.

The South Mitkof Island Ferry Terminal was developed to serve two new ferry routes in Southeast Alaska: 1) An Alaska Marine Highway System (AMHS) Ketchikan Shuttle (Ketchikan to Mitkof Island) with continuing ferry service from the Petersburg terminal to the hub at Juneau and 2) The Inter-Island Ferry Authority (IFA) shuttle ferry between Prince of Wales Island, Wrangell, and Mitkof Island. The primary drivers for the new terminal were to reduce system costs, improve service, and develop greater connectivity in the service area. For a sustained period of years the Alaska Legislature has, through various means, conveyed to the Alaska Marine Highway System (AMHS) a consistent determination to reduce the annual General Fund subsidy essential to operating the system. In addition, the public and communities served by AMHS desire a regional transportation system that is more flexible, frequent in service, efficient, reliable, convenient, and stable. Providing meaningful service improvements and cost reductions requires that AMHS revise its operations as outlined in the Southeast Alaska Transportation Plan (SATP). A key element of the SATP is the development of new ferry terminals, including the South Mitkof Island Ferry Terminal. The SATP also has identified a need for greater connectivity and the development of local ferry service. In response, IFA is now expanding its operations to the north end of Prince of Wales Island with a new ferry, a new terminal at Coffman Cove, and service to a terminal at the south end of Mitkof Island. This paper discusses the general process used to examine the potential terminal sites on the southern end of Mitkof Island, presents engineering, environmental and operational screening criteria employed, summarizes the decision process, and describes the final design of the new terminal.

There is currently no ferry operator providing auto and passenger ferry service between the islands of Oahu, Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii. Hawaii Superferry, a private corporation, and Hawaii Department of Transportation-Harbors Division, have embarked on an aggressive program to provide daily ferry service between these Hawaiian islands. This new service would provide a cost-effective alternative to the current modes of transportation. All major projects have their own issues that need to be resolved. This paper will describe some of the issues associated with the development of the new service; a service that is the result of a private-public partnership between the State of Hawaii and the operator, Hawaii Superferry. This paper will discuss scheduling, operating, and funding challenges, in addition to discussing some of the innovative, technical solutions.

The San Francisco Bay Area Water Transit Authority (WTA) is enhancing existing ferry services in San Francisco Bay by adding new passenger ferry terminals to locations in San Francisco Bay. Engineering studies have been performed to date for new passenger ferry terminals that are currently planned at South San Francisco, Berkeley and Hercules. The proposed terminals are located along various different types of shorelines with diverse physical and biological conditions. In order to develop safe navigable approaches and avoid potential adverse impacts from ferry traffic on these existing physical and biological conditions, the WTA has performed comprehensive engineering studies, including impacts of wake wash on the shorelines, biological resources and navigation safety. Wake wash studies have been conducted for the aforementioned three proposed terminals consisting of a three-tiered approach that includes the following: 1) Programmatic Environmental Impact Report - preliminary determination of potential issues on a system-wide level, 2) Wake Wash Measurement Protocol - standardization of the procedure for measuring wake wash and defining vessel wake wash performance criteria, 3) Site-Specific Wake Wash Impact Analysis - detailed wake wash impact analyses on shorelines, biological resources, and navigation safety for each new route. The Programmatic EIR study was completed and assisted in the first stage of selection of potential WTA ferry terminal locations. Following completion of the Programmatic EIR, the WTA developed and issued the WTA Wake Wash Measurement Protocol, which describes in detail appropriate procedures for measurement and analysis of wake wash to facilitate consistency and comparability between vessels and measurements. The WTA Wake Wash Protocol has become a practical tool for vessel and terminal engineers in San Francisco Bay and elsewhere. Terminal and route site-specific studies have been completed for three currently proposed terminal locations and included the following components: existing data review and collection, site visits and field data collection, wake wash transformation and existing physical processes numerical modeling, wake wash impact numerical modeling and ferry field tests. The state-of-the-art impact analysis methodology and technology applied to each potential ferry terminal by the WTA is part of the WTA's proactive and environmentally conscious effort to implementing ferry service in San Francisco Bay.

Most of the U.S. Navy's pier infrastructure was built in the 1940s and 1950s. Given the age of these piers and advent of newer classes of warships, the Navy has embarked upon an ambitious recapitalization effort. In conjunction with this, a question was posed to the Naval Audit Service as to whether the Navy should adopt a single standard of pier construction. After much study, the Naval Audit Service concluded that a single standard should not be adopted, giving the various Navy regions sufficient latitude to build the type of pier that best meets their operational and local needs. Naval Station Norfolk has chosen to replace its aging piers with double deck piers. Double deck piers have been found to be advantageous in a number of ways. The primary advantage of the double deck piers is to separate operations and utilities functions on different decks. By dedicating the lower deck to utilities the upper deck can be used solely for various operations such as personnel ingress/egress, mobile crane operations, and maintenance. Providing two decks allows for better pier/ship interface. The higher deck creates better mooring configurations by flattening the mooring line angle, particularly in heavy weather mooring situations. To date Piers 2, 6, and 7 have been completed with Piers 2 and 6 coming on line in late 2001. Pier 7 was just completed in 2005. Pier 11 is currently under construction and Pier 15 is in the planning stages. This paper will discuss some of the subtle improvements that have been made as successive piers have been designed. It will also provide an overview of some of the innovative features of the piers to include piling, superstructure, mooring hardware, fendering, hotel services, and demolition.

The Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center (NFESC) assessed wheel and outrigger float load limits for a 130-ton mobile crane on Berth 8 Commander Fleet Activities, Yokosuka, Japan. Berth 8 consists of pile-supported reinforced concrete sections and soil-supported concrete pavement sections. NFESC conducted nondestructive impact load tests, soil strength tests, finite element analyses (FEA), and pavement analyses. NFESC developed a color-coded plan-view of Berth 8 showing safe outrigger deck load limits and wheel travel for the 130-ton mobile crane.

The U.S. Navy has designed and built a unique roll-on and roll-off pier in open-water for transferring cargo to and from San Nicolas Island, CA. This pier replaces an amphibious beach operation that conflicted with marine mammal habitation. Built high above expected ocean waves, the new concrete pier has a steel offloading ramp that can be lowered for any given wave and tide conditions. Dolphins have highly specialized hardware appropriate for mooring in an open-ocean environment. This paper describes key details of planning, designing, and constructing this one of a kind facility using a performance-based design/build contract. The paper also describes design details for moving cargo from a barge in the open-ocean.

This paper discusses the inspection and design of repairs to a pier 1118 kilometers (695 miles) north of the Arctic Circle. The DeLong pier serves as the lifeline to resupplying and providing construction materials to the Thule Air Base in Thule, Greenland. The pier supports base operations and is the northernmost deep-water port in the world. The pier is constructed of four jack up barges originally conceived for service as oil exploration platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. The barges were towed to the site in 1951 as a temporary facility and have been in continual seasonal service to this date. Each barge is 76 m long by 15 m wide (250-feet long by 50-feet wide) and aligned end-to-end forming a 305 m (1000-foot) berth. Forty-eight (24 per side) 2 m (6-foot) diameter concrete filled steel caissons support the pier. The jack up barge type construction allowed the pier to be installed at the site within the limited weather window of the arctic environment. Early in the pier's life, many of the caissons began to exhibit cracks in their steel shells within the tide zone, presumably a result of ice expansion forces and steel that was unsuitable for extreme cold weather service. Numerous repairs have been carried out over the structure's life to address this problem. This paper provides an overview of the pier's history and arctic port operations and focuses on the recent rehabilitation project. These repair designs incorporated experience and knowledge gained from previous repairs and were detailed for a limited construction window of approximately two months.

"Cold Ironing" is a process utilized to reduce exhaust emissions from ships at berth by providing shore-generated electrical power instead of operating the ships' auxiliary diesel generators. Although the U.S. Navy has used cold ironing for decades at naval facilities around the world, its application in a commercial context is relatively new. This paper describes the process of design development and of securing building permits for a cold ironing system at Pier G Phase 2 Wharf in the Long Beach Harbor Department (LBHD) District, more widely known as the Port of Long Beach (POLB). The first step in designing the shore-to-ship power system at POLB involved developing design standards, since none were available for this type of commercial power supply system. The three main considerations were: establishing a ship voltage and electrical load standard for ships presently in service and those that will be in service 10–15 years from now; developing shore-to-ship electrical connection hardware; and designing system safety requirements. Subsequent design considerations included appropriate wharf structure and transformer/switchgear components. The permitting process was also unusual. The Permits Section of the Long Beach Building Department had never had plans submitted for a cold ironing system. Concerns were shared with the Plan Check Reviewers on the overall system, and operational standards were developed to ensure safe operating conditions for the cold ironing system. These extra steps in the permitting process were necessary to secure the building permits required to construct the project.

Public pressure increases to build and operate structures that use fewer resources and cause less impact on environment and health. The political buzzword is sustainability and comprehends an entire philosophy on how to maintain an ecosystem that can be sustained over generations. In 1998, an executive order from the White House launched the "Greening of the Government" initiative that causes pressure on public authorities to take measures toward building sustainable structures. This paper discusses the steps that can be taken towards the design of sustainable marine concrete structures and presents it in light of a case study. The case study is a new generation berthing pier, the Modular Hybrid Pier (MHP), developed by the Navy. The designed functional flexibility of the pier allows increasing the design life to up to 100 years. The pier is an example of a sustainable, yet economical, concrete marine structure in that it has a sustained functional value and causes low environmental impact during construction, use, and disposal.

Berth 15 is located along the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal in Balboa, Republic of Panama, and is owned and operated by the Panama Ports Company (PPC). Berth 15 is an existing 278-meter-long marginal wharf and is comprised of three independent segments (Segments A, B, and C) and uses both steel and concrete superstructures. The existing substructure consists of "railroad style" pier walls and reinforced concrete caissons. The wharf was built in the early 1900s by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and was used extensively by the U.S. military throughout the 20th century. The soils behind the berth are weak and have led to a slope failure in the 1940s, which had damaged the original wharf. In 2004, Intercoastal Marine, Inc. and BERGER/ABAM Engineers Inc. entered into an agreement on a design/build basis with PPC for the upgrade of Berth 15 for ship-to-shore gantry cranes. The upgrade called for the strengthening of the existing structure to support three 15.24-meter gantry cranes, widening the structure to support hatch covers, and for deepening of the berth from –9 to –13 meters. The upgrade for Segments A and C employed precast, prestressed concrete beams supported on existing reinforced concrete caissons. Significant modifications were required to the steel and concrete pile caps to transfer the crane and deck loads. The existing structure for Segment B consisted of a series of simple span girders spanning 27 meters, which was too far to support the crane wheel loads. Strengthening was done by driving new concrete piles through the existing deck and building intermediate transverse pile caps to shorten the span and integrating the piles into the structure. The new crane beams for this segment were constructed by using existing steel girders with a cast-in-place concrete in-fill beam.

Exhaust emissions from auxiliary engines operating when ships are at berth is a significant source of pollution in the San Pedro Bay Ports Complex. The Port of Long Beach (POLB) has adopted a Green Port Policy making environmental protection a top priority. As part of the Port's Green Port Policy a reduction of diesel emissions is a goal. The Port has identified vessels that have a high power demand as candidates for implementation of shore-side electrical power or "cold ironing" while at berth. Cold Ironing of ships at berth allows auxiliary engines to be turned off, thus eliminating that source of emission and causing an overall reduction of air pollution in the Port. This paper provides an overview on the design and development of bid documents for Cold Ironing Alaska Class Oil Tankers at the BP oil-unloading terminal located at Berth T121 in the Port of Long Beach. The project will be the first of its kind to cold iron an oil tanker terminal. The paper will focus on the design of the onshore and offshore facilities required to support and implement Cold Ironing, and on the operational and safety issues involved with Cold Ironing of an oil tanker terminal. The facilities include electrical, structural, mechanical and civil design elements. Not all vessels will be cold ironed at the facility. The paper will present the investigation and analysis undertaken to ensure there will be no conflicts between the new facilities and mooring of smaller non-cold ironed vessels and the mooring and berthing of the Alaska Class Oil Tankers. The facilities must be constructed while maintaining operations at the terminal. A discussion of the development of construction documents to accomplish the project while maintaining operations is included. Cold Ironing of the vessels requires that various modifications be made to the vessels which will be performed under a separate project. The paper will discuss the coordination required between the ship and shore side facility designs. Many operational procedures had to be developed for the implementation of the Cold Ironing. The paper will discuss the issues involved and how they were developed as part of the design process. In addition, various safety procedures were developed and will also be discussed. This paper will be of interest to those engaged in the design of cold ironing facilities or providing alternative electrical power to vessels. Specifically the paper will be of interest to those who are engaged in the design of petroleum or LNG terminals because of the nature of these berthing facilities.

The Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities have recently completed design and construction of several major ferry terminal improvement projects for the Alaska Marine Highway System that utilize large diameter, cylindrical shaped floating fenders. These vertically oriented floating fenders provide an energy absorbing breasting surface and a means for attachment of mooring lines. The fender floats up and down with the tide and the ship, allowing unattended line handling through daily tidal height variations that exceed 26-feet. The floating fenders offer an alternative means to safely breast and moor vessels for long periods of time where large tidal variations occur. This paper discusses the design parameters, construction features and functional characteristics of these floating fenders as they relate to the mooring of large ferry vessels. Case histories for three recently constructed ferry terminal facilities are provided.

This paper presents a case study on the performance of the flexible steel dolphins in the Washington State Ferries (WSF) system, including observations and analysis of each dolphin. The flexible steel pile dolphin was developed to be environmentally friendly, meet the increased energy demands for the larger vessels, and have low maintenance. They are a new style of fender system that absorbs energy through a combination of fenders and piling. The purpose of the work was to evaluate the performance and durability of this new style of fender system. The performance evaluation was accomplished by surveying the masters and mates using the dolphins. The durability evaluation was accomplished by reviewing design criteria, design and construction issues, repair and maintenance records, and by personal observation of each dolphin.

This paper presents the design and constructibility considerations associated with the fender system upgrade at the Waterfront Street Terminal in New Haven, Connecticut. In order to provide improved service to its customers through a dock capable of receiving larger vessels, the terminal owner, Magellan Midstream Partners, LP (Magellan), embarked on a project to evaluate the capacity of its existing berthing structures and implement repair and upgrade measures to the facility to accommodate vessels up to 85,000 deadweight tons (DWT) in size, thereby allowing it better serve the needs of its customers. The ship dock at the Magellan terminal was built in the early 1950s, and comprises a walkway leading to a steel pile-supported loading platform, a total of eight steel H-pile clusters that serve as breasting and mooring dolphins, and steel pile-supported catwalks connecting the aforementioned structures. Four breasting dolphins, against which the vessels are berthed, exist along the outboard face of the dock. Four mooring dolphins exist to the north and south of the breasting dolphins. The existing fender system at the breasting dolphins comprised a series of three steel wales welded to each dolphin, to which a timber fender panel was bolted. The project commenced with an initial study phase, which included the collection and review of existing data, performance of an above-water inspection, and observation of typical berthing operations at the facility. The engineering and design phase of the project included an underwater inspection—conducted to confirm the study's findings and gather further information on existing conditions— and the development of contract documents for fender system upgrades and structural repairs to the breasting dolphins. The construction phase of the project, in which the prescribed measures were implemented, was completed in July 2005.

This paper will cover available sources of data, selection of appropriate data, statistical analysis methods for determining wind speeds with appropriate durations and return periods and recommendations for utilizing historic wind data for mooring analyses. When utilizing historic wind records, it is important to understand both the benefits and limitations of the data. Meteorological records are based on standards that are not always directly compatible with a mooring analysis. Also, meteorological methods have changed over the years and can vary by location. It is important to understand how the wind data is collected, analyzed and reported, before applying the information to a mooring analysis.

The Alaskan Way Seawall is a unique structure located in Puget Sound, Washington. As the interface between the dense development of downtown Seattle and the marine waters of Elliott Bay, its purpose is to provide wave and erosion protection, as well as to retain fill for upland developments and transportation and utility corridors. While the seawall has served the city well over the past 70 years, its main structural support system, a timber relieving platform, has become vulnerable to marine borers. In addition, the design and location of the seawall make it vulnerable to liquefaction induced failure in a strong earthquake. The loss of the seawall would threaten not only the transportation facilities, the waterfront street, and the Alaskan Way Viaduct (part of the National Highway System - one of the two main north-south highway routes through Seattle), but also a regional utility corridor. Because of the importance of the structure and its vulnerabilities, many seawall replacement concepts were studied before arriving at the current concept that combines soil improvement with a new concrete face panel system. This paper briefly describes the history of the seawall and summarizes the important issues considered in the development of replacement concepts for this unique and significant marine structure.

This paper presents an overview of the design and construction of two bulkheads across a breach in the bank of Blackwater River in Seabrook, New Hampshire. The bulkheads were constructed from composite fiber reinforced polymer (fiberglass) sheeting, in a first waterfront application of this kind in the United States. The bulkheads were filled with sand dredged from the course of the river. The area between the bulkheads was filled with the same sand to reconstruct intertidal sandflats, which had been lost to the river breach. The innovative use of the synthetic sheeting in this application resulted in significant cost savings over the use of steel sheeting.

This paper will present a conceptual analysis of a bulkhead design that instead of using conventional fill, stone or dredged sands, uses an alternative layered system based on re-used materials. The layered system is comprised of Tire Derived Aggregate (TDA; ASTM D6270) encapsulated by soil layers made from blends of curbside-collected, 9.5 mm (3/8")-minus crushed glass (CG) and dredged material (DM) fines, or CG-DM blends. TDA is a freely draining lightweight geotechnical fill (7.8 kN/m³ (~50 lbs/ft³) which has been used in numerous civil engineering applications to improve slope stability, reduce surcharge pressures on soft compressible soils, and lower earth pressures on retaining walls. Pug-milled CG-DM blends can be prepared to meet DOT embankment and structural fill specifications while also enabling immediate fill construction by improving the workability, strength, drainage and settlement characteristics of DM fines without the need for curing or consolidation. Both materials have interesting geotechnical properties, and their application to maritime construction has the potential to revolutionize bulkhead design and construction while bolstering the efficiency of recycling programs. This paper compares the design of bulkheads with conventional backfills, versus a bulkhead leveraging recycled materials. The results clearly illustrate that recycled backfills introduce significant economical and technical advantages, such as simplified construction sequencing, improved backfill properties and reduction of backfill weight.

Located in the Upper New York Bay, the historic Ellis and Liberty Islands attract a combined total of almost 4 million visitors each year. The seawalls that surround the Islands were constructed in the early 1900s and now show varying degrees of deterioration, especially at Ellis Island. This is indicated by erosion of mortar joints, dislodged granite blocks along the wall face, decay of wood cribbing, washout from behind the seawall, and local wall displacements compromising its stability at some locations. During a recent study, a detailed survey of the conditions of the seawalls was performed that included visual inspection and geophysical techniques to assess the condition of the almost 10,000 ft of seawall on the two Islands. A remediation plan was developed that includes a large number of restoration and retrofit techniques ranging from simple repointing of stone blocks, to significant structural underpinning and lateral support of the seawall using modern geo-technologies such as micropiles and grouting. This paper summarizes the history and construction of these national monuments and describes the intended application of various technologies for the repair of the seawalls.

A 1,400 ft floating concrete breakwater has been developed to expand and upgrade the Port of Bremerton's marina in downtown Bremerton on Puget Sound in Washington State. The location of the marina presents a unique set of challenges for harbor protection. Extensive data collection and numerical and physical modeling were conducted to determine the optimum geometric shape of the structure. Unique concepts were developed to analyze the hydrodynamic behavior of the structure, and several analyses were conducted to arrive at a final mooring and structural design. The result is a multi-functional state-of-the-art structure that serves as a prominent example of durable, cost-effective harbor protection.

Two case studies are presented on perforated (porous) breakwaters that have been analyzed, designed, and constructed at Port facilities in the United States and Korea. Motivation for the design and installation of these structures was driven by challenging soil conditions as well as a desire to modify wave reflection/transmission characteristics of the structure and the site. This paper discusses the analysis, numerical modeling, physical modeling, design, construction and post-project monitoring performed for these two perforated breakwaters. Case study #1 describes the Coast Guard and Cruise Terminal Pier at Busan, South Korea that was designed to provide moored vessels with protection from swells and wind-waves with periods ranging from 7 to 15 seconds in a depth of 12 meters. The foundation material at the breakwater location is deep, soft silts and clays. The engineering analysis included development and verification of a 1-D wave transmission/reflection model which predicted reflection and transmission within single and multi-wall (up to 3 walls) perforated breakwater systems; 2-DV physical modeling of wave transmission, wave reflection, and wave forces; and 2-D numerical wave refraction-diffraction-transmission-reflection modeling. The final breakwater cross-sectional configuration was a perforated 3-wall system with varying wall spacing and wall porosity. Transmission and reflection coefficients from the physical model satisfied the project design criteria. Case study #2 describes the breakwater and fill containment structure at the Middle Harbor Enhancement Area, Port of Oakland, CA (USA). The breakwater was constructed to contain fill from the Port of Oakland's 50-ft Dredging Project that was placed in order to create eelgrass habitat. The breakwater was designed to block storm wave energy, with porosity incorporated in order to minimize reflection effects from wind-waves and wakes. The design analysis was conducted using empirical and 2-D wave refraction-diffraction-transmission-reflection modeling techniques. The perforated wall breakwater was constructed in 2004. A post-project monitoring program was completed to verify the performance of the breakwater and the design engineering tools that were used during the design process. The monitoring program includes two non-directional pressure gauges and corresponding digital video images collected remotely via wi-fi dish over the internet. Field data were processed and analyzed, and show that the analysis techniques were valid and that the breakwater design meets the wave reflection design criteria.

The Esso Bahamas Clifton Terminal supplies a large majority of all fuel to New Providence Island (Nassau) and the outlying islands. Part of the terminal facilities includes a fuel distribution dock that provides berthing/mooring for small tankers that supply fuel throughout the Bahamas' islands in the Caribbean. This project involved replacing the existing dock, access pier and pipe rack that was undersized for the newly commissioned M/T Ocean Energy tanker and which needed upgrading due to damage from Hurricane Frances on September 3, 2004. The new dock and access pier were realigned to optimize accessibility for the tankers by sea and for terminal personnel by land. In addition, the new alignment enabled existing operations to continue with minimal disturbance and shutdown to the existing facility during construction. The focus of this paper is on the challenges in designing and constructing the new berthing facility and access pier in an aggressive environment which includes rough seas, hurricanes, unique terrain and highly variable subsurface conditions. This project sets a new standard for this type of facility in the oil industry for its functionality, flexibility and safety in the Bahamas and Caribbean. The cost of construction was approximately $4 million (USD). The paper will address the design and construction issues associated with the project including the structural design of the various components, utilizing ExxonMobil Global Practices as a design basis, along with establishing essential loads including wave forces acting on the dolphins and access pier. A discussion of the structural analysis of the dolphins and access pier will include an overview of the structural models developed with the anticipated loads. Results of the analyses will be presented as well as the material selections to best suit the environmental conditions, operational constraints and strict safety requirements maintained by Esso.

This paper addresses the seismic design of some structural components of the Pier 400 Crude Oil Marine Terminal at the Port of Los Angeles (POLA). With 81 feet (24.64m) water depth at the pier headline, this project will be the largest tanker-handling berth on the West Coast. It is located in a region of high seismic activity and challenging geological sub-surface conditions. These factors combine to present unique design issues. The paper is limited to the seismic analysis and design of the Unloading Platform and the North Trestle providing access to the platform. It describes the geotechnical conditions and areas of special interest, mainly problems encountered in connection with the large horizontal displacements of these structures. Of particular interest is the issue of determining the minimum necessary gap between the trestle and the platform to accommodate the relative displacement of both structures to avoid damaging closure.

Recent hurricanes have struck the US East and Gulf Coasts with historic fury. Studies indicate that the intensity, size, and duration of tropical cyclones (hurricanes and typhoons) are increasing dramatically and may be correlated, at least in part, to increasing ocean surface temperatures. This appears to be a global phenomenon and many scientists predict the trend is not likely to abate any time soon. Dockside cranes are typically designed to resist hurricane wind pressure based on 50-year mean recurrence interval (MRI), 3-second gust wind speeds, at 10 m above ground. These design wind speeds are statistical, based on historic wind speed data. Does this historic data reflect current trends? Dockside container cranes, unlike buildings, have very little redundancy in their structural design for resisting wind loads. In hurricane-prone regions, the cranes are held by one or more tie-downs at each corner. Slight increases in wind speed have amplified effects on corner tie-down uplift forces. If a single tie-down fails, the crane will likely collapse. This paper presents recent trends in hurricane wind loads, a novel new design "ductile link" tie-down system, and an acceptable risk method for guiding the selection of an appropriate level of retrofit for an existing crane structure.

The Wharf and Embankment Strengthening Program (WESP) is a three-phase program to evaluate the seismic vulnerability, berthing capacity, and waterside crane beam capacity of selected, older container wharves within the Port of Oakland, located on the eastern side of San Francisco Bay in a highly seismic region. This project is in conjunction with channel deepening at the Port to –50 feet MLLW which will enable the Port to handle larger ships, provided the wharves can withstand loading demands from the larger vessels and the larger cranes required to service them. This paper describes the details of the implementation of WESP Phase 3, Final Design and Construction of Wharf Modifications for Deepening of Berths 23–26 & 30. The design team was tasked with mitigating the following deficiencies identified in previous phases: 1) Berths 23–26 & 30: Stabilize the embankment to maintain the current seismic integrity of the wharves and embankments for post-dredge conditions, 2) Berths 23–25: Replace outdated fendering with modern energy-absorbing units to handle vessels 20 years into the future; provide new mooring bollards with a total capacity of 330 kips (unfactored) associated with larger, future vessels; and upgrade the waterside (WS) crane beam to handle a larger maximum operating load of 51.0 klf (factored) associated with larger cranes. Landside crane beams did not require strengthening, and 3) Berths 26 & 30: Adjust the breasting line to coincide with the new fender systems on Berths 23-25, utilizing the existing fenders. This paper details challenges that the design team encountered to achieve the design goals while minimizing the Port's investment in these older facilities. 1) Embankment stabilization was achieved by installing an underwater, cantilevered sheet pile wall at the toe of the existing slope, 2) The WS crane beam was strengthened by support from new transverse girders added below the existing deck, 3) New fendering systems added met the increased energy requirements of the larger design vessels and provided adequate clearance between the vessel hull and the underwater sheet pile wall, 4) Structural steel spacers were added at Berths 26 & 30 to align the existing fenders with the new fenders at Berths 23-25 and provide offset for clearance between the vessel hull and the underwater sheet pile wall, and 5) Attachment of higher capacity bollards met the strength requirements.

The Port of Portland, in Portland, Oregon is dredging several berths at Terminal 6 to take advantage of deepening the lower Columbia River ship channel for larger ships. The terminal's container wharf is supported by a series of 65-foot diameter steel cellular sheet pile cells and connecting arcs. Previous engineering studies using classical analysis methods determined the existing structure could not be deepened without adding significant structure such as new crane beam piling. Using advanced numerical soil-structure-interaction analysis we developed a design that achieved goals at lower costs. These numerical analyses were based on back-calculated soil parameters from wharf deformations measured during construction. Numerical modeling forecast deflections for deeper dredged depth, seismic load performance, and showed how the soil and steel sheet piles share the vertical crane loads. The numerical analyses indicated that deflections would be limited to acceptable values, even though the classical analysis resulted in very low factors of safety based on "conventional wisdom".

As one of the most popular cruise ship destinations in Alaska, the City of Ketchikan has had to evaluate their port structures and upgrade facilities to meet current load requirements. This paper presents the demolition, design, and construction challenges associated with the replacement of the Spruce Mill Dock. The project replaced a large portion of an aging timber dock with a new steel/concrete structure that meets current demand and code requirements. The design team met technical challenges presented by a short construction schedule, a remote project site, 7.6-meter (25-feet) tidal ranges, complex demolition requirements, limited availability of local high-quality high-strength concrete, a severely corrosive environment, difficulties during steel fabrication, and extreme weather conditions during construction. The cruise ship facilities are of critical economic importance to the City. Any miscalculation on the construction schedule that delayed the project completion date could have had severe adverse economic impact to the local businesses.

This paper discusses the Seismic Engineering Program that has been developed at the Port of Los Angeles (POLA). Over the years, experts have collaborated with POLA staff in a continuous effort to develop a modern seismic code for container wharves. Since 1990, several workshops have been conducted and many documents and technical papers have been published. The current code, "The POLA Code for Seismic Design, Upgrade and Repair of Container Wharves", emphasizes performance-based design and soil-structure interaction to reflect the challenges of designing container wharf structures in an active fault region of Southern California. A Technical Advisory Board consisting of experts in structural and geotechnical earthquake engineering disciplines has reviewed the development of the code at all stages. Recent wharf construction at the Port confirmed the practicality of the design procedure and construction details. In addition, the Port sponsored and funded an experimental program at the University of California at San Diego to confirm code assumptions. A Port-wide ground-motion and fault study program was undertaken to develop uniform seismic ground motion hazards for the entire Port to augment the Port's future projects and develop more consistent designs. At the time of writing this paper, POLA is in the process of preparing a book to present its efforts on seismic code development of container wharves. It is hoped that this comprehensive seismic engineering program will provide useful information to other port agencies and the marine design industry both nationally and internationally.

The Port of Los Angeles (POLA) and Port of Long Beach (POLB) jointly embarked on a ground motion study of the Los Angeles-Long Beach harbor area to develop consistent seismic ground motion recommendations for design of structures within the ports. Regional and site geology and seismicity were reviewed to establish the latest understanding on geological features and faults contributing to the seismic hazard at the POLA and POLB, with particular attention on the Palos Verdes fault, a major fault in the region that passes directly through the POLA area, and the nearby Newport-Inglewood fault. Ground conditions affecting site response were interpreted from borehole and geophysical data available in existing geotechnical reports for both ports. Probabilistic seismic hazard analyses were performed using latest revisions of ground-attenuation models commonly used in California, including the latest version of an attenuation model that is being developed as part of the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research/Lifelines Next Generation Attenuation Project. Adjustments for near-fault rupturing effects were made and uncertainties in earthquake source and attenuation model parameters were addressed through the use of logic trees. Local site conditions were incorporated based on quantitative and qualitative assessment and supported by empirical strong motion data. Horizontal and vertical-component uniform hazard spectra for design events were developed for various damping values and seven sets of spectrum-compatible acceleration-time histories were also developed.

There has been recent work published regarding the potential for tsunami generation from several local seismic and submerged land slide sources off the coast of southern California. The close proximity of these tsunamigenic sources to the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach (Ports) has caused some concern regarding the impact of a tsunami in the Ports. The Ports jointly commissioned this investigation into the detailed tsunami propagation in San Pedro Bay to assist them in their engineering and emergency preparedness planning. A boussinesq wave model was used in this investigation is to provide detailed data for the locally generated tsunami characteristics including maximum water levels, water level time, histories, arrival times, current speeds, and overtopping estimates. The likelihood of a tsunami occurring from these local sources was also evaluated based on the geological characteristics of the Southern California Continental Borderland. The results of the investigation suggest limited areas of overtopping within both Ports. Those areas expected to overtop consisted primarily of partially enclosed basins where resonance typically occurs within the Ports. The arrival times for the sources investigated ranged from 10 to 30 minutes. The seismicity and tectonic characteristics of the Southern California Continental Borderland (SCCB) suggest large earthquakes (M~7.5) capable of generating the tsunamis simulated in this investigation are very infrequent and have not occurred in the offshore area of California within historical times. Based on the seismicity, geodetics, and geology, a large locally generated tsunami would probably not occur more, than once every 10,000 years.

The December 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake emphasized the need for a consistent and comprehensive assessment of tsunami hazard. We have developed a method for Probabilistic Tsunami Hazard Analysis (PTHA) based on the traditional Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) and therefore completely consistent with standard seismic practice. In lieu of attenuation relations, it uses the summation of finite-difference Green's functions that have been pre-computed for individual subfaults, which enables us to rapidly construct scenario tsunami waveforms from an aggregate of subfaults that comprise a single large event. For every fault system, it is then possible to integrate over sets of thousands of events within a certain magnitude range that represents a fully probabilistic distribution. Because of the enclosed nature of ports and harbors, effects of resonance need to be addressed as well, which is why have extended this method to not only analyze exceedance levels of maximum wave height, but also of spectral amplitudes. As in PSHA, these spectral amplitudes can be matched with the spectral response of harbors, and thus allow a comprehensive probabilistic analysis of tsunami hazard in ports and harbors.

Many ports in the Pacific are experiencing significant growth as a result of increased business trade. In these areas of the world, container wharves need to be designed for a combination of gravity loads and seismic loading. The connection between the pile and the wharf is critical as large ductility requirements may be relied upon these connections. This paper discusses the results of an experimental program funded by the Port of Los Angeles (POLA) to improve and enhance the performance of pile-deck connections that will satisfy the requirements of the new Performance based Seismic Design Code for Container Wharves issued by the port. Two full-scale units, representing typical seismic and non-seismic pile-deck connections were tested under reversed cyclic loading. The tests units showed lateral displacement reserves significantly greater than those that corresponded to the structural strain-limits in the new Seismic Design Code for the Port of Los Angeles.

Container cranes have evolved to serve ever increasing ship sizes. Today's typical container cranes are about triple the size of the first cranes, much heavier, and more vulnerable to damage from seismic events. The seismic vulnerability of these large cranes was only recently recognized as a result of detailed time history analysis. This paper discusses what changed to cause the vulnerability, the results of the time history analysis, a physical explanation of the crane-wharf interaction, the inconsistency of seismic design criteria for wharves and cranes, recommended design criteria, and some base isolation and modification concepts.

This paper presents the findings of a seismic capacity study of the recently designed Berth 59 wharf at the Port of Oakland (the Port), California. The study was conducted to evaluate whether or not the wharf would collapse in a 2500 year San Francisco Bay Area seismic event. The wharf had been designed in accordance with the Port's seismic design requirements and criteria explained below. The Port's wharf design criteria require designing for strain limits for the forces resulting from three seismic levels. The three levels are events having 50, 20, and 10 percent probability of exceedance in 50 years. The return periods for these events are approximately 75 years (Level I), 225 years (Level II), and 500 years (Level III), respectively. The wharves are expected to suffer no or little damage and remain fully functional during and immediately after a Level I event. The wharves are not expected to collapse during a Level III event. The design criteria are derived from an acceptable risk approach such as is shown in the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering (TCLEE) Monograph No. 12, Seismic Guidelines for Ports. "Acceptable Damage" increases as the probability of risk decreases. The original design considered three return periods, 75, 225, and 500 years. The "Acceptable Damage" increased as the return period increased. The criteria were consistent with the acceptable risk approach. This evaluation looked at a much higher return period and allowed greater damage. The seismic capacity study was accomplished by performing nonlinear pushover analysis and a soil structure analysis to evaluate the effect of slope displacements. In the pushover analysis, the magnitude of static lateral force is increased until the wharf is no longer stable. Ground motions for various earthquake levels were developed using probabilistic seismic hazards analyses (PSHA). The probabilistic analyses were conducted for three return periods (500, 1000, and 2500 years), which are equal or higher than the Level III event. In addition to the inertial forces and displacements calculated using pushover analysis, the performance of the Berth 59 piling was also evaluated for slope movement (kinematic soil-structure interaction (SSI) effects). The soil deformations were computed using FLAC (nonlinear finite difference program) as well as pseudostatic slope stability analysis combined with Newmark-type sliding block analysis. It was determined that the wharf at Berth 59 is not expected to collapse due to events with return periods of 2500 years.

Geotechnical considerations were significant in design of a wharf extension and new terminal on San Diego Bay in National City, California. The design geotechnical investigation indicated that the loose and medium dense soils underlying the wharf extension had a high potential for liquefaction for the design level earthquake. Various shoreline retention alternatives were evaluated, including a rock dike, a revetted slope over densified ground and a sheetpile cellular bulkhead. Numerous dynamic finite difference analyses were performed to evaluate the seismic response of each system. The sheetpile cellular bulkhead provided the best shoreline retention solution. The sheet pile cells enclose bay deposits and were backfilled with end tipped sand or dredged sediments which were subsequently densified. A performance criteria of a minimum Cone Penetration Test (CPT) tip resistance was used to verify adequate densification. The specified densification was difficult to achieve in some layers due to inadequate porewater drainage and/or confinement. The wharf deck is supported by 24-inch octagonal precast concrete vertical piles. Monitoring with a Pile Dynamic Analyzer (PDA) confirmed the design predictions of the pile capacities.

The base slab of the largest dry dock on the west coast of the United States has experienced up to 5 inches of differential settlement under loading from large ships since its construction in the early 1960s. This settlement has resulted in a large depression in the dry dock floor. Soil borings and other geotechnical tests revealed a loose soil zone beneath the depression. Following geotechnical analyses and comparison of options, compaction grouting was judged to be the most appropriate method to improve the loose soils and mitigate ongoing settlement without requiring major structure repair or replacement of the dry dock base slab. Compaction grouting was performed in 2006 to densify the loose soil and extend the life of the dry dock structure. The design of the compaction grouting system from preliminary to final design, changes during construction, and grout operations and results are presented.

In order to accommodate the increase in container trade and vessel sizes, the Port of Los Angeles (POLA) has embarked on a port-wide container wharf upgrade program and channel deepening program. To meet the demand for additional backlands to the upgraded wharves, POLA is developing landfills using dredged materials from the channel deepening program placed within containment dikes. Approximately 17-ha (43-acres) of land is being developed in two stages within the Southwest Slip of the West Basin area. About 765,000 cubic meters (1 million cubic yards) of harbor bottom material dredged during channel deepening was identified as contaminated and unsuitable for open ocean disposal. The second stage of the land fill (west fill) was also used as a disposal facility for the contaminant material. The design and construction of the landfill posed unique geotechnical challenges as the site contains varying thickness (8–12 m [25 – 40 ft]) of soft and highly compressible foundation material beneath the approximately 10–17 m (30 – 55 ft) thick dredged fill materials, which are also composed of predominantly fine-grained compressible materials. The difficult soft site conditions and demanding project schedule required the need for significant amount of wick drains installed overwater as well as on land, and surcharge placement to improve the site with the time constraint. Land-based wick drains in excess of 3,500,000 m (11 million ft) and water-based wick drains of more than 700,000 m (2.3 million ft) were used in the project, making it the highest usage of wick drains in a single project in Northern America. The containment dikes were required to be designed to meet defined seismic performance criteria under operating level earthquake (OLE) and contingency level earthquake (CLE) conditions. This paper provides details of subsurface conditions, design, monitoring and ground improvement evaluation of the landfill.

The design of wharf systems in areas of high seismicity is quite challenging. The seismic code for the Port of Los Angeles (POLA) specifies the performance for two levels of earthquake intensity, the Operating Level Earthquake (OLE) and the Contingency Level Earthquake (CLE). According to this design procedure, structural behaviors should be controlled well even in large earthquake events, but available information is quite few and additional experiments are required to obtain better understanding. A current testing program underway at University of California, San Diego (UCSD) for POLA is aimed at validating the performance of pile foundations behavior in light of the new code. This paper presents detailed information of the testing plan, such as test piles, test set up plan, instrumentations, and so forth. The test has not been carried out yet (November 1, 2006), but it will be conducted soon and test results will be published.

Pile driving at port facilities causes vibrations and settlement that can have negative effects on adjacent facilities and their occupants. Humans can perceive vibrations at levels below what typically cause architectural or structural damage. However, some of the more advanced biotechnology or other research and development facilities have vibration requirements well below human tolerances. This paper presents the results of our evaluation of 201 vibration recordings from impact driving steel piles at five sites near the downtown Seattle waterfront. This paper presents a predictive relationship between hammer energy, distance, and peak vector sum velocity. In addition, we present measurements of the settlement trough produced by driving a single row of bulkhead H-piles 1.5 and 2 meters on-center for crane rail upgrades at two Port of Seattle terminals.

The Richmond San Rafael Bridge (Figure 1) is a 7 kilometer long major toll bridge span across northern San Francisco Bay. Tutor-Saliba/Koch/Tidewater (TSKT) conducted a comprehensive seismic retrofit, which was at the time Caltrans' largest-ever construction contract at $484 million. The robust foundation retrofit design of 11 bridge piers included the installation of 26 new, large diameter (3.20 to 4.11 m OD, wall thickness 38 to 57 mm) Cast-in-Drilled-Hole (CIDH) and Cast-in-Steel-Shell (CISS) piles, with steel pipe piles installed to tip elevations of Elev. –42.7 to –67.1 m, in water depths up to 21 m. The open-ended steel pipe piles had initial sections ranging from 21.6 to 52.4 m long, self weight of 880 kN to 2780 kN in air, with full lengths that extended to the bay bottom and then through 30.5 to 39.6 m of marine sediments to top of bedrock. The marine soils of most interest consisted mainly of soft to firm Young Bay Mud (YBM), a silty, moderately-sensitive clay common to SF Bay. A key constructability issue was prediction of pipe piles "running". The term "pile running" describes the penetration of the pile into the soil due to the self-weight of the pile only. This issue was critical because 1) there was limited head room under the bridge deck, and 2) if piles run too deep, the pile splicing on several piles would be problematic (the lowest desirable pile top elevation after running was +3 m). This paper discusses the running prediction under self weight for 26 piles, and the methodology used in developing the predictions. The prediction methodology was quite good, and no significant constructability problems were encountered. Another case is also presented using the same methodology. The paper presents the model, predictions, observations, and discusses important lessons learned.

A new pier was constructed for the Port of Everett in 2005–2006 as part of a barge-to-rail transfer facility to handle oversized containers up to 35 feet wide, 35 feet tall, or 140 feet long in support of 777 and 787 aircraft assembly at Boeing's Everett plant. The site, located in an ecologically sensitive area, was selected to minimize transit time from the barge to the plant. The 863-foot-long facility included two — 266-foot-long finger piers to support a Rail Mounted Gantry crane (RMG) to lift the containers from barges. The focus of this paper is the seismic design of the pier. A two-level, MOTEMS (Marine Oil Terminal Engineering and Maintenance Standards), displacement-based approach was used. Some of the key seismic design issues included discontinuities between the main pier and the finger piers and a large eccentricity created by significant differences in pile lengths onshore to offshore. This paper provides an interesting case history, which illustrates how the seismic design can be driven by operational requirements.

This paper highlights the first use of stone columns for marine ground improvements in the Puget Sound of Washington State, and the application of these ground improvement measures for underwater wall stability and overall structural stability. Design, construction, and environmental features are described, emphasizing the challenges and issues surrounding the installation of underwater stone columns and the dredging that occurred before and after the wall installation. Challenges and complications associated with creosote in the soils found during construction and phasing of dredging in front of the wall of clean and contaminated materials are also discussed.

The Charleston Naval Base Container Terminal is planned for a 2007 construction groundbreaking. The 113-hectare site is primarily an inactive dredge spoil basin and filled tidal marsh. Soft soil thicknesses in the dredge spoil basin average 13.7 m and local maxima exceed 21 m. Since the container terminal site elevation must be raised by an average of about 3 m, the primary site stabilization challenges are large settlements and control of post-construction settlement. This paper presents the site characterization using cone penetration testing supplemented with soil test borings and also presents site stabilization evaluations. Site stabilization evaluation focuses on the use of prefabricated vertical drains with soil surcharge to control post-construction settlement from the anticipated pavement loadings. Predicted total settlements of up to 2.5 m result from raising the site grades and placing up to a 150% soil surcharge. This paper provides an overview of successful exploration techniques for these difficult sites and design considerations for post construction settlement control.

Two dimensional (2D) seismic stability and deformation analyses completed for the design of a new terminal in the Blair Waterway at the Port of Tacoma are presented in this paper. The new terminal or wharf will be constructed on piles driven along a 65-foot high dredged compound slope, with inclinations of 2H:1V and 1.75H:1V for the upper and lower portions of the slope respectively. The primary geotechnical issues for this project relate to slope stability and ground movement under seismic loading in liquefiable loose to medium dense silt and sand. Ground and wharf movements are evaluated under two earthquake conditions (OLE = 75-year return period and CLE = 475-year return period) using the finite element (FE) program, PLAXIS 2D. Time histories used as input at the base of the PLAXIS 2D model were developed from the site specific response spectra analyses using SHAKE. The effect of liquefaction and soil-structure interactions are also considered in the 2D FE deformation and time histories analysis. The results indicate that ground improvement (stone columns) is required to reduce ground deformation and bending moment in the wharf piles to meet the performance criteria recommended in Marine Oil Terminal Engineering and Maintenance Standard 2003 (MOTEMS). PLAXIS 2D is also used to optimize the spacing, depth and diameter of stone columns at the site.

In light of the inherent variability and soft nature of soil deposits in the marine environment, it is common geotechnical engineering practice to use conservative soil property values for analysis and design recommendations. The shear strength and modulus values often recommended are generally smaller than best estimate or mean values. The connotation that lower bound values are conservative can be related to the use of limit-equilibrium analyses for stability applications involving foundations, earth retention systems, and slopes. Current use of numerical models for performance-based design at ports has demonstrated, however, that the assumption that lower bound soil properties yield conservative results is not always accurate. This paper presents two examples in which lower values of strength and/or modulus resulted in unconservative estimates of performance for the design of port waterfront structures.

After receiving a modest federal port security grant in a recent funding round, a US port agency selected and installed an elaborate, state-of-the-art security system in compliance with federal port security regulations. However, the system implementation proved to be more difficult than originally anticipated resulting in implementation delays and un-anticipated project cost and system operation costs. If this sounds like a familiar scenario, it should, as some US ports are realizing the actual cost of implementing a federally funded project. What some ports have failed to take into account when applying for the security grants is the additional expenses associated with training and or hiring port personnel to use the system and ongoing operational costs necessary to effectively monitor surveillance, detection and control systems. For these ports, it has proven to be a valuable "lesson learned" for consideration on implementation impacts of future critical security measures.

This paper focuses on three interesting elements of modern gates: options for arranging Radiation Portal Monitors, new uses for optical character recognition equipment, and the case for separate entry and exit gates. Early Radiation Portal Monitors (RPM) installations primarily involved "shoe-horning" these gate systems into existing gate layouts. Totally new gates consider the best way to sequence and integrate the RPM control steps with terminal-specific control steps. Early optical character recognition (OCR) portals often stretched out gates and wasted space on funneling traffic. New alternatives integrate OCR into the truck interchange/pedestal lane. Finally, a relatively new West Coast longshore clerk agreement has made separate entry and exit gate areas more practical. This gate type can provide a more efficient truck flow through a terminal with its reduced cross traffic and reverse flow. The change in the clerk agreement made this possible because it allows increased automation, and the option to remove clerks from truck lanes. Gate clerks can now control gate lanes from a single office using cameras and intercoms. This paper explores these concepts in the context of several recent conceptual plans for North American container terminals.

Deterioration of waterfront structures is an ongoing process. Repairing these structures at the appropriate time and prioritizing the repairs, on a limited budget is the key to the sustainability of the structures. The process of inspection and repair has historically been a subjective process limited to ratings from four to six levels, such as `Good', `Fair', `Poor' and `Bad'. The evaluation process has been dependent on the level of inspection effort and an assessment of the significance of the observed distress. Much of the evaluation has been dependent on the experience and opinion of the inspectors. Prioritization of repairs and use of available funding hinged on the opinions given by inspectors and managers. Since historically, the process has been subjective, there has been a degree of variability in the reported condition, and it is therefore difficult to get the same rating for the same or similar distress. With a small rating scale there is limited granularity in the ratings, therefore the methods used to allocate funding to a particular facility has in many cases been the `squeaky wheel gets the grease'. Because of this, funding has not always gone to the facility in most need of repair. An Engineered Management System (EMS) for waterfront facilities removes much of the subjectivity from the process, add granularity and provides a rational, objective method to compare the significance of distress. Entire facilities are inspected, including the structure, fender system, mechanical and electrical utilities, buildings, pavements, roofs, doors, windows and paint. Degradation data for each of the inspected elements are input into a database and numerically rated. The ratings are rolled up into various levels, as required; i.e. the pier; pier and utilities; pier, utilities and crane; the terminal; or the entire port. This roll-up provides each level of management with the necessary guidance to properly allocate maintenance funds. The EMS process also allows a methodology to track and project future degradation of an asset. The EMS provides facility managers the ability to prioritize the critical elements in their operations. If the crane and crane electrical system are critical to operations, they can be given a higher importance factor. The importance factors for these systems are applied to the ratings. Condition Index (CI) ratings generated by the EMS software provides managers tools to allocate funding to facilities critical to their operations.

The widespread application of sensors and instrumentation systems at port facilities has substantially lagged behind that of other sectors of civil infrastructure due to a combination of factors that include; lack of external funding sources for geotechnical and structural instrumentation, difficulties in coordinating the installation with construction schedules, instrument longevity and maintenance concerns in the marine environment, location and access considerations in active terminals, and resources for data acquisition and archiving efforts. Most of these issues have been overcome for buildings, bridges and dams where the application of advanced sensors with real-time data processing and visualization software yield direct benefits to engineering evaluation of system performance under operating loads and extreme natural hazards, maintenance, and life-cycle management. Given the tremendous benefits of performance monitoring progress is being made at ports and marine oil terminals in California where instrumentation has recently been deployed to obtain data on near shore currents, vessel impact and mooring loads, ground and wharf foundation deformations, and the seismic response of waterfront structures. The lessons learned during these recent projects will benefit current planning and installation efforts at other ports. This paper summarizes field applications for instrumentation at ports and related civil infrastructure, and demonstrates the advances made in seismic performance evaluation of port facilities that have been facilitated by field monitoring. This paper supplements the companion paper in these proceedings prepared by the ASCE-TCLEE Ports Lifelines Committee on the monograph Instrumentation for Monitoring the Performance of Port and Coastal Infrastructure. The monograph was prepared to highlight recent experience with instrumentation programs for major port projects in the United States.

The long-term use of instrumentation and sensor technology for monitoring the condition and performance of waterfront structures has become a topic of increased focus in practice. This is due in part to the adoption within portions of the ports community of engineering concepts such as performance-based design and life-cycle management, which necessitate that the condition of the wharves and ancillary structures as well as foundation components are well characterized throughout their service life. Many of the integral components of waterfront structures are submerged and/or embedded in soil often making it difficult, if not impossible, to directly and frequently inspect. For this reason the use of geotechnical and structural instrumentation has been implemented on several recent port projects in order to monitor the performance of structures above and below grade. The specific objectives of these instrumentation programs have been to obtain field data for one or more of the following issues; (a) construction-induced ground deformations and pile alignment, (b) post-construction base line data on as-built conditions, (c) operational performance characteristics during routine loading conditions, (d) performance data in the event of extreme loading due to natural hazards (hurricane storm surge or flood, earthquake, tsunami), and (e) time-dependent issues such as corrosion impacts, ground deformations due to soil consolidation or creep near slopes, near shore scour or sedimentation, and the performance of aging infrastructure. This paper provides an overview of the needs, objectives, benefits, and impediments to the implementation of instrumentation programs at ports. This supplements the companion paper in these proceedings prepared by the ASCE-TCLEE Ports Lifelines Committee on the monograph Instrumentation for Monitoring the Performance of Port and Coastal Infrastructure that has been recently published by ASCE.

Existing methods and procedures for performing routine inspections and condition assessments of waterfront facilities are highly subjective. They rely — often exclusively — on the engineering judgment of the individual performing the inspection. Condition assessments based on these types of inspections have been shown to be extremely variable, rendering them inappropriate as the foundation for a comprehensive, automated facility management program. The Pile Condition Index (CI) represents the first step in a US Navy-sponsored effort to develop a more rational approach for performing routine inspections and condition assessments of waterfront facilities. The Pile CI — a more objective and repeatable method for assessing the condition of concrete piles — takes routine inspection data and transforms them into a standardized numeric rating, which indicates both the physical integrity of the pile and the level of remedial action necessary to correct any observed defects. The transformation of defect data into a numeric rating is accomplished using a weighted deduct-density model. A direct rating approach was used in developing the model, which is calibrated to produce values similar to averaged consensus ratings assigned by a panel of expert waterfront engineers. More than twenty waterfront engineering experts — representing industry, the US Navy, and academia — participated in the development of the Pile CI.

The Port of Seattle maintains an inventory of more than 26,000 lineal feet (7,925 meters) of saltwater waterfront structures of diverse structural makeup, considerable range of age (some dating to the early 1900s), overall structural condition, and desired operational use and loading. As with many Port Authorities, the ability of the Port of Seattle to maintain a current detailed understanding of the condition of its structures has been limited by the availability of funding. As such, rather than through proactive evaluations, much of the available data on facility conditions has been obtained through reactive analyses resulting from events such as earthquakes, lease negotiations, and potentially accidental damages or failures. The Port of Seattle is interested in establishing a more thorough methodology of evaluating its facilities to provide a more comprehensive general understanding of facility conditions throughout the Port. The benefit of this work will be to provide sufficient data to allow more thoughtful planning and identify and plan necessary improvements that may be required to maintain the facility and/or meet lease commitments in the long term. The Port of Seattle is initiating this process through ongoing work at Terminal 5, one of its primary container facilities. The ongoing study process will be used to provide Port staff with the decision making tools required to determine what, if any, improvements are required to maintain the waterfront assets for at least the duration of existing lease commitments.

When litigation involves damage to waterfront structures, attorneys will turn to waterfront engineering experts to assist in the case. One important aspect of professional services to support litigation efforts is the expert report. Expert reports provide the necessary technical background to support or dispute a claim. While the report must be technically accurate and well-documented, it also must be understandable by attorneys, judges and the general public, if the case goes to trial. In order to meet these requirements, the expert report will differ from a typical inspection report in terms of scope, purpose, audience, and format. This paper will examine the requirements for expert reports and will make recommendations for producing an effective report that meets the client's and the client's attorney's needs. The paper will also present pitfalls and potential conflicts that must be considered when preparing an expert report. Producing a clear, concise, accurate and technically defensible report is an important skill for engineers who become involved with waterfront structure claims and litigation.

The steel sheet piling in the Duluth-Superior Harbor is corroding at an accelerated rate compared to other Great Lakes fresh water harbors and ports. Based on observations of both older and new sheet pile installations, the accelerated corrosion appears to have begun in the late 1970s. Underwater inspections have revealed that the corrosion is widespread throughout the harbor on all types of steel piling buttressing the docks. Some of the steel beams supporting the dock structures have holes the size of footballs (15–30 cm) which have already been or are in the process of being repaired. To provide a systematic focus for the needed research and mitigation recommendations, a steering committee was formed and recommended the corrosion problem be reviewed by an independent group of experts, each specializing in a different area of corrosion. In September 2004, a panel of five experts in corrosion, microbiology, metallurgy and chemistry examined the corrosion problem. The experts narrowed down the initial list of 12 possible causes to a few likely causes and made both long- and short-term recommendations. This paper will 1) describe the accelerated fresh water corrosion observed in the Duluth-Superior harbor, 2) describe the project steering committees and expert panels role with the project, 3) discuss how project funding is being pursued, and 4) discuss the ongoing studies and preliminary results to determine the cause or causes of the accelerated freshwater harbor corrosion.

The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey has been protecting timber piles in marine environments from marine borers with pile wraps since 1994. The success and failures of this effort will be reviewed. Modifications made to the protective systems based on lessons learned and existing QA/QC procedures will be presented. The latest test data and investigative methods employed for sheeting materials and banding materials for in-place piles and protective treatments for new timber will be introduced. A study on the rate of section loss will also be included.

There exists no code or cookbook formula to assist the design engineer in implementing effective rehabilitation measures on waterfront facilities. Examples of repairs that have failed prematurely abound in this field. Rehabilitation schemes that address the underlying root cause or causes of deterioration are, unfortunately, the exception to the rule. Rehabilitation measures that simply patch existing defects often do a disservice to the owners of these facilities. Effective rehabilitation strategies must go beyond the repair of existing defects by protecting the remaining unrepaired structure from premature or accelerated degradation. Service life extension involves the quantitative modeling of protection strategies in order to determine the most cost-effective method or combination of methods to preserve the structural integrity of the facility for a specified period of time. The concrete repair and protection industry is enormous, attracting considerable attention from vendors seeking to solve problems and provide solutions to owners and engineers. The volume of products available can be daunting for the design engineer to sort out and, despite the barriers to acceptance in the marketplace, the list grows longer every year. As can be expected, not all of the available products and solutions are effective and it is incumbent upon the design engineer to sort through what works and what does not. Several outstanding techniques have emerged in recent years that deserve special recognition. This paper highlights several recent developments in service life prediction modeling and repair techniques such as incorporating cathodic protection in innovative ways such as embedded anodes, metallized coatings, and pile jacketing. There are even ways of removing chloride ions from contaminated concrete while repassivating the embedded reinforcing steel. Each of these techniques will be discussed and evaluated in this paper. A case study highlighting an effective service life extension evaluation at the Port of Portland is also presented.

Management of environmental related risk during construction is an integral part of construction management services. Environmental related risk is defined as non-compliance with environmental permits, approvals and regulations. The added and unanticipated costs and lost profits that arise as a result of non-compliance with environmental requirements can be onerous in terms of fines and project delays. Non-compliance with environmental requirements during construction can also impact valuable working relationships with the same regulatory agencies associated with an owner's future projects. Thus, the permitting and approval process becomes more difficult, time-consuming, and expensive for the owner. There are many variables that can affect the risk that an ongoing construction project will encounter noncompliance with environmental regulations and requirements. The present regulatory environment in which projects are constructed continues to increase in complexity, both technically and dynamically, involving a multitude of regulatory agencies, permits and approvals, and a myriad of technical disciplines. Agencies frequently inspect projects under construction for compliance with permits and other regulatory requirements, and contractors propose means and methods that may not be in compliance with project permits or may require modifications to existing permits. The background and experience of the various engineers and contractors with regard to environmental compliance varies widely. This paper discusses management of environmental risks and actual examples associated with the "Replacement of the Third Avenue Bridge over the Harlem River" (3AB), located in the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, in New York City, owned by the New York City Department of Transportation (DOT), and under construction (replacement) from 2001 – 2006. This was a bridge replacement project over a tidal watercourse, CSX railroad, an expressway, and local streets. The watercourse, the Harlem River, is a tidal body within the jurisdiction of the United States Coast Guard (USCG), Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE), and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC). The project is in an urban area with motor vehicles (70,000 ADT), pedestrians, and marine traffic. The role of modern-day construction and construction management (CM) services, through attention to and management of risks with methods that include electronic and hard copy based documentation of Environmental Management Systems (EMS) will be discussed. The discussion will cite actual examples of implementation on the 3AB project.

Construction cost estimates for marine construction and rehabilitation are essential to the owner in planning, authorizing, and financing a project. However, for marine construction there are many issues that make the process more complicated than for typical building and transportation projects. This paper discusses the fundamentals of cost estimating, presents issues to consider in estimating marine projects, and discusses alternative risk-based techniques for evaluating project costs.

The structural system herein described is comprised of oversized reinforced precast concrete blocks. These blocks can be placed rapidly, speeding construction of revetments, retaining walls, blast barriers, sound attenuation walls, quays, breakwaters, seawalls, and shore protection structures. The blocks can be made with a hollow core or alternatively encapsulate vehicle-tire-bundles (sustainable option). The system allows for the placement of continuity reinforcing and piles can be incorporated to increase foundation performance. The use of the system is particularly advantageous in marine construction by allowing precast manufacturers to competitively supply projects locally and globally through direct delivery of the blocks — via barge or ship — from a marine-side precast plant to a marine-side construction site. Public agencies are increasingly concerned about their project's contribution to sustainability. The system's potential maximization of discarded tire usage becomes highly significant as a method to reduce the amount of waste tires ending up in landfills or being burned.

West Central Africa (WCA) is a region plagued by a history of political, social and economic instability. Nonetheless, seaborne container trade continues to grow. The West Central Africa Region, from Ivory Coast to Angola, is one of the few regions of the world without a dominant hub distribution port. A 1990 World Bank study found that a combination of factors appeared to dissuade the creation of a WCA transshipment facility. The study found that any cost savings of containerization were not significant enough to warrant a transition from the existing multiple-ports-of-call. However, this paradigm appears to be changing. An emerging market now exists for a regional transshipment container terminal. This paper will examine the processes used to determine the economic, financial, and engineering feasibility for a transshipment terminal in São Tomé e Príncipe. Additionally, it explores political risk and its direct relationship to funding capacity.