Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities

This paper describes an evaluation of the lateral load-resisting system of an existing monolithic, cast-in-place, reinforced concrete (RC) stadium structure completed in the early 1930s. A major renovation/expansion of the stadium completed in the 1990s included modifications of some of the original exterior infill masonry wall, including removal of masonry and enlargement of existing openings. A preliminary study raised concerns about the impact of these modifications on the lateral load resistance of the stadium structure. A new study, which consisted of an evaluation of the structure’s performance using in situ lateral load testing of the structure, numerical analyses, and monitoring of the actual stadium-sway movements during football games, was undertaken in 2006 to determine the adequacy of the lateral load resisting system of the stadium. The results of this study, which are reported in this paper, demonstrate that the masonry modifications made during the renovations/expansion of the stadium did not impair the structure’s resistance to code-prescribed lateral loads and that no major structural repairs were required.

The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building caused a progressive collapse that consumed nearly one-half of the building, killing 168 people. The use of a transfer girder along the front face of the building is often cited as the prime reason for the severity of the incident, although this paper provides evidence that suggests the transfer girder may not have been responsible. A method of predicting column failures attributable to blast is introduced and used to accurately predict the column failure pattern observed during the forensic investigation. The frame was adjusted with the transfer girder replaced with a conventional beam column arrangement. The failure pattern of the reconfigured building indicates that the extent of the collapse would be largely unchanged. This finding has important implications for the design of buildings that may be subjected to accidental or malicious damage. It is argued that the other buildings have demonstrated an ability to survive similar incidents and that the Murrah Building was vulnerable because it combined a glazed facade with open-plan architecture, in addition to lacking alternative load paths capable of redistributing loads after multiple column failures.

This study examines 1,029 snow-induced building failure incidents in the United States between 1989 and 2009 and 91 international incidents between 1979 and 2009. Incidents were identified through newspaper archives, including 1,345 articles from 883 unique sources. Most U.S. incidents occurred in New York, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. Findings show that 37% of all buildings experiencing snow-induced failure incidents in the United States were of metal/steel construction and another 37% were of timber, while 53% of international incidents were metal/steel and 17% were concrete. Warehouses, factories, and commercial buildings were the most common buildings affected. Failures were attributed to the amount of snow, rain-on-snow mixes, and building problems. Monetary impacts included building damages ranging between $1,000 and $200 million and business interruption associated with an average building closure of four months. Nineteen fatalities and 146 injuries were reported for the United States, while 293 fatalities and 586 injuries were reported internationally. These findings describe building failure trends, which may be significant, considering potential impacts of accelerating global climate change on the patterns of snowfall frequency and density.

Adobe construction is an important part of the built heritage in the Central Region of Portugal. The protection and rehabilitation of buildings of this type is becoming of increasing interest. In-depth knowledge will enable the preservation and assessment of this ancient technique with a high potential for sustainable construction, which forms the core aspect of the current research. The rehabilitation of these structures depends on an adequate diagnosis of their pathologies. Those most frequently observed are related to structural problems, absence of structural cohesion, damage by the wooden covering structure, and the effects of damage by water effect in to the structure and walls. These are often associated with a lack of maintenance of the buildings over a long period of time or with design detailing problems, namely stemming from when reinforced concrete was introduced into the traditional adobe construction system, or again by external environmental factors. Knowledge of the process of the introduction of reinforced concrete and its motifs are also important to this study. The pathologies observed in the mixed adobe/concrete system in addition to the traditional system are related to basement moisture, corrosion of reinforced concrete, wall cracking, degradation in coverings, and single parts of the curtain wall/facade and design errors. A timely correction of pathologies will mean a significant reduction in the cost of repair works or even in saving the construction from ruin. Minimum maintenance rules applied to old buildings, associated with a proper understanding of its behavior, can increase the longevity of this vast heritage. By protecting the identity of our towns, apart from the benefit of heritage and cultural preservation, it also encourages tourism and consequently increases local development.

In current practice, progressive collapse analysis typically includes two types of hazards: the initial hazard that causes localized damage and the subsequent response of the structure to bridge loads across the damaged areas (analysis referred to as alternate path method). However, little detailed information is available on a third type of hazard, such as fire that typically follows the initial hazard. Prolonged exposure of a damaged structure to fire could be detrimental to the short-term stability of that structure and may pose a significant threat to the safe evacuation of building occupants. This paper presents a study of the effects of fire following an extreme event (i.e., blast or impact) that causes failure of one column on the perimeter of a common steel building frame. The approach focuses on a steel structure that is designed to satisfy new U.S. Dept. of Defense (DoD) guidelines and assumes that the extreme event not only damages one column but also damages active fire protection (i.e., sprinklers) in the vicinity of the structural damage. Results of this study include estimates of the time to collapse initiation and a correlation between the level of remaining passive fire protection (i.e., spray-on fire resistive materials applied to the structural elements) and the collapse time. The goal of this study is to raise awareness of potential fire hazards that may follow extreme events and provide recommendations regarding evacuation times for occupants of damaged buildings under fire.

This article discusses a combined analytical and experimental study on the nonlinear seismic performance of two Guastavino-style masonry domes located in the United States. The seismic performance of these masonry domes is simulated with nonlinear finite-element (FE) models. To support the assumptions and decisions established during the development of the FE models, the vibration response of the domes is measured on-site and systematically compared against the numerical model predictions. Linear FE models are developed that are in close agreement with the measured natural frequencies and in visual agreement with the measured mode shapes. Next, these linear models are extended into the nonlinear range by incorporating the Drucker-Prager damage criterion. Finally, nonlinear FE models are used to assess the performance of these two domes under seismic loadings obtained from the 1940 El Centro earthquake acceleration records. The predicted displacements and internal tensile stress levels are used to make inferences about the potential behavior of these two buildings under the selected earthquake load.

This paper presents an expert system designed to support the inspection and diagnosis of gypsum plaster coatings applied to partition walls and ceilings [interior gypsum plaster (IGP)]. It includes a classification of the defects that may affect IGP and their probable causes, the correlation matrices amongst defects and between defects and probable causes, and a classification of diagnostic methods and repair techniques suitable for each type of IGP defect. This inspection system was validated through standard IGP inspections undertaken on 119 walls or ceilings in 23 buildings located throughout Portugal. A statistical analysis of the results of the inspection is given that provides details on, in particular, the pathological problems related to the action of water on IGP because the presence of moisture within or on the surface of IGP coatings was shown to affect the severity of the problems of inspected samples. The characteristics and frequency of occurrence of dampness, biodeterioration, and efflorescence and cryptoflorescence are presented, together with the primary causes for their presence in the sample. The most suitable diagnostic methods, preventive measures, and repair solutions prescribed for these defects are also analyzed, in detail.

Clients’ lack of involvement in defining quality requirements for dwellings built by developers leads to a perception of poor quality at the time of purchase. The research presented in this paper aims to broaden previous research on defects by analyzing the defects that remain in the post-handover stage, which usually lasts 12 months after the handover period, and identifying the factors that influence the appearance of these defects, determining whether a significant difference exists in the quality of the two main residential building types built by developers: flats and detached houses. It also analyzes and discusses the areas and elements in which the defects were detected. The data were obtained from client complaint forms completed after the handover of 95 dwellings in Spain. The data were then statistically analyzed using a t-test analysis, a Pearson’s parametric correlation, and a chi-square test. The research reveals that clients detect more defects in flats than in detached houses. The lower quality of the materials used in flats and the tighter schedule to which flats are subject may cause these differences.

The storm surge, wind, and waves produced by Hurricane Ike in 2008 caused notable damage to the transportation infrastructure in the Houston/Galveston region of Texas. This paper presents the lessons learned from damage to bridge infrastructure in the Houston/Galveston region observed after Hurricane Ike, with comparisons to empirical evidence from past hurricane events on common failure modes and design details affecting bridge performance under hurricane-induced loads. A rich set of damage data is developed, drawing upon postevent inspections and reconnaissance data to present details such as bridge type, failure mode, and surge elevation for the 53 damaged bridges. Many of the damaged structures in the region were either constructed of timber or were low-clearance water-crossing bridges, and these bridges were often completely destroyed by the storm surge and wave loading. Scour and debris also hampered the performance of both major structures and rural bridges. The evidence from the performance of these structures highlights the need for new design alternatives or retrofits such as the use of shear keys and restrainer cables, grated decks, or replacement of timber bridges with box-culvert structures, among other solutions.

This paper evaluates the operational structural performances of the various kinds of bridge construction materials and/or structural designs, considering the deck areas of bridges, rather than their discrete counts. Deck areas represent more objectively the actual constructed capacity in the inventory and the traffic mobility. The study compiles and analyzes the entire bridge inventory in the United States. The analysis uses multiple-criteria diagnostic measures to determine the condition, durability, longevity, and overall equivalent performances. The results provide a comprehensive national network-level comparative basis for bridge material performances at the serviceability limit states. Nearly 99% of all the bridge areas in the inventory have average structural deficiency ages significantly lower than the official life-cycle expectancy. The durability performances indicate that the average service life before structural deficiency is only 42 years. The relatively high condition contrasts with the low durability and longevity performances, reflecting the efforts to improve the condition of bridges. Overall, the average equivalent structural performances of bridge materials by deck areas are quite low, and even lower as compared with performances by bridge counts.

Precast deck panels are increasingly being used to reduce construction times as part of a push for accelerated bridge construction by some state departments of transportation. Despite the short-term benefits, the connections between panels have a history of serviceability problems. To evaluate the service and ultimate behavior of current and newly proposed connections, 12 push-off tests were performed on precast bridge deck transverse connections for shear. These tests used an improved shear specimen geometry that allowed the connection to deform in more realistic shear. This new test setup included spaces that allowed diagonal cracks to form and reinforcement to pull out of the connection. The push-off tests established the cracking and ultimate shear strengths of each connection detail. These details included a welded connection, an unreinforced grouted connection, and a post-tensioned-type connection tested with and without an applied compression force. Results of each detail type are compared. The test results show that the post-tensioned connection outperformed the other connection details, with 2.1 times the shear capacity of a welded connection spaced at 45.7 cm (18 in.).

Low vertical clearance bridges over the roadway are vulnerable to overheight vehicle collision damage. Collisions can cause driver and passenger injuries/fatalities and property loss to the vehicle and bridge owners and can severely jeopardize the bridge structural capacity. However, accurate measurements of bridge vertical clearance can be difficult, especially when height differentials occur either as a result of site topography or a superelevated bridge deck. An automated measurement technique using light detection and ranging (LIDAR) scan is introduced to provide high-precision clearance data for bridge surfaces, from which minimum vertical clearance locations can be easily identified. Traffic can induce noises in terrestrial LIDAR imaging, hence, an approach to reduce noise is proposed. The results from field measurements on four bridges in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, demonstrated the value of LIDAR-based measurement techniques and confirmed the deviation measurements from design criteria, which can be associated with the collision damage caused by deficient clearances.

This paper presents the effects of instantaneous live load on the performance of partially cracked axial concrete members (representing on-site damage) subjected to cold region environments. A total of 5,289 constructed bridges in the state of North Dakota are analyzed to identify critical attributes. The environments simulated consist of 100 cycles of freezing-submerging-drying at a freezing temperature of $-30°\mathrm{C}$. The instantaneous live load effects are 20%, 40%, and 60% of the concrete compression strength at 28 days. A combined experimental and numerical investigation is conducted to examine the behavior of conditioned concrete cylinders. The research reports that the environmental effects are critical on the performance of existing concrete members in cold regions, and the presence of live load accelerates the deterioration of concrete. Internal damage attributable to the load cycling affects the axial stiffness and crack propagation of the conditioned concrete. All cylinders show volumetric contraction until failure occurs, followed by abrupt dilatation at failure. The live load effects influence the strain energy density and ductility of the concrete. A regression line to predict the strength degradation of the conditioned concrete is compared with numerical models.

This paper reports on the implementation of a relatively novel scour monitoring system that includes the ability to record substructure response to potential changes in scour conditions. The substructure instrumentation consists of tilt sensors installed at the top of each of two in-water piers on an existing common configuration of a steel I-girder bridge that is currently the site of severe scour problems. The key focus of this paper is the structural analysis that was required to assess the significance of potential instrumentation readings resulting from these sensors. Two types of structural analysis were performed: a one-dimensional pushover analysis to assess substructure stability and a three-dimensional finite-element analysis to evaluate superstructure performance as a result of movement to the substructure. As a result, the substructure displacements corresponding to unfavorable performance of the structure were determined in both types of analysis. The effects of scour on the superstructure are also used to draw attention to the need for a greater understanding of the consequences of scour.

Statistical surveys conducted on investigation of reasons of bridge failures implied that the majority of bridges have failed because of excessive scouring at infrastructural elements. A bridge crossing an alluvial river should therefore be designed properly with special reference to possibility of this action at piers and abutments. On construction of a bridge, its scour criticality should be examined regularly throughout the service life spans to take necessary actions promptly. The Federal Highway Administration (FHwA) developed a methodology and software named HYRISK to evaluate annual risk of scour failure of an existing bridge in monetary values. A case study is carried out for a bridge crossing Fol Creek in the Black Sea region of Turkey using this methodology, which is integrated with additional assessment methods for checking conditions of bridge elements and channel in close vicinity. The scour criticality of the bridge corresponding to existing and possible future conditions is obtained, and a feasible scour countermeasure is designed using HYRISK and an economic analysis.

Irrigation canals are primary hydraulic infrastructures from an agricultural point of view, and their performance is highly dependent on the efficiency and durability of their coatings. This paper presents the main conclusions of a survey undertaken in Portugal, which concluded that in most situations, the following technologies are used: concrete cast on site, precast concrete slabs, and prefabricated membranes (polymer bitumen or synthetic). These linings may manifest various pathologies with significant consequences on the amount of water lost as a result of lack of watertightness. These defects are classified by lining solution, and their main causes identified. Finally, an exhaustive set of recommendations and rehabilitation techniques are described to minimize water leakage from the canals.

The authors investigated the effectiveness and costs of preventive treatment techniques for flexible pavements. Based on survey results from 29 state departments of transportation (DOTs), it was found that the expected pavement life extension caused by these treatments follows the order of thin hot-mix asphalt (HMA) overlay, microsurfacing tied with chip sealing, slurry sealing, and crack filling/sealing. The reported costs follow the order of thin overlay, microsurfacing, and chip sealing tied with slurry sealing, whereas costs of crack sealing/filling cannot be directly compared. The authors also analyzed data from 81 Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) program specific pavement studies (SPS) experiments, which were specifically designed and constructed to study the effectiveness of pavement treatments. Based on paired t-tests, it was found that all the treatments reduced international roughness index (IRI) with statistical significance. The authors then pooled the data from all the control sections and created a pseudo control section and subsequently developed a linear regression model for it. By comparing the effects of treatments with this pseudo control section, the authors found that the approximate life extension of the pavement sections benefited from these treatments is as follows: thin overlay for 5.4 years, chip sealing for 1.9 years, crack sealing for 1.7 years, and slurry sealing for 1.1 years.

This paper presents results from a unique study that employed biomechanical evaluation techniques to assess the slipping behavior of traditional and pervious concrete pavements under icy conditions. Gait motion analysis using embedded force plates, electromyography, and tracking videography were used to analyze subject mobility of on icy and wet pervious concrete. Results show that pedestrian contact pressure on pervious concrete is more than twice the pressure on traditional impervious concrete. In slippery conditions, the pervious concrete specimens had more controlled gait cycles and reduced slipping. The unique surface characteristics combined with high permeability reduces surface icing, suggesting that pervious concrete offers superior slip resistance in inclement weather.

One of the most aggressive environments for concrete is in an industrial area such as a petrochemical complex compound. In this area, exposure to highly corrosive materials such as ammonium nitrate, high carbonation rates (resulting from increased concentration of carbon dioxide (${\mathrm{CO}}_2$) in industrial environments, and environmental conditions (such as relative humidity and temperature fluctuations) can collectively contribute to weakening the durability of concrete. This paper presents a study of corrosion damage of concrete and the embedded reinforcing steel of a 44-year-old nitrate prill tower of a petrochemical complex located in Shiraz, a city in southern Iran. After a thorough visual inspection and observing different deterioration mechanisms, a comprehensive set of conventional experiments to assess the durability of reinforced concrete was performed. Various degrees of deterioration were associated with different exposure conditions along the tower. Results indicated that the concrete had been severely decalcified up to 3 cm from its surface. However, reinforcement corrosion was negligible. Results moreover show that exposure to ammonium nitrate solutions was the primary reason for the high deterioration of the concrete of the tower.

Recent increases in the number of terrorist bombings and explosions have led to increased need for postblast investigators. Numerous advances have been made in the area of chemical analysis of explosive residues, but little work has been done to aid postblast investigators in the determination of explosive charge weight using postblast structural damage. This technical note discusses the results of a review of existing blast analysis software packages for their ability to be used as a forensic tool supporting postblast investigations. The recurring limitations of the software found in this review are discussed. It is determined that individually the software packages do not show much promise as such a tool, but that when used concurrently, they may have some value to the postblast investigator. However limited knowledge about the built-in safety factors as well as the ability to specify and modify boundary conditions in the software packages have left the authors to pursue other avenues.