Journal of Construction Engineering and Management

The deterioration, inadequacy, and insufficiency of the nation's infrastructure is a serious problem affecting the U.S. today. Several important organizations have documented this problem extensively, and agreed on the need to develop new infrastructure rehabilitation research strategies, tools, and products to improve the performance and efficiency of existing facilities. Since the inherently complex nature of rehabilitation projects requires very close interaction between the design and the construction processes, an understanding of the characteristics, requirements, capabilities, and limitations of construction technologies for infrastructure rehabilitation is important to help overcome the fragmentation of the planning, design, construction, and maintenance processes, and the conservative approaches of designers that focus more on legal and liability concerns than on innovation and development of new ideas and technologies. It is also important to understand the role construction technologies play in developing solutions for infrastructure rehabilitation problems. Focusing on the rehabilitation of sewer systems as an example, this paper: (1) Presents a synthesis of the state of the art of construction technologies for sewer rehabilitation; (2) discusses the role they play within an optimal planning approach for sewer rehabilitation; and (3) introduces a broader framework for an integrated design/construction research program for infrastructure rehabilitation.

The words innovation and technology are considered by many as “not applicable” to the construction industry. Yet when defined in simple terms, they very much apply to every construction company. A new technology is a product or process that a company has not previously used in its operation. Innovation is seeking, recognizing, and implementing a new technology to improve the functions a company is performing. With such definitions in mind, this paper develops a set of guidelines for contractors to successfully introduce new technologies. The present state of innovation in the construction industry and several existing models of innovation are described. Based on this review, a set of questions is developed and used to examine the conditions surrounding six case studies of successful introductions of new technologies. Based on these findings, a process for implementing innovation is proposed and applied to both small and large contractors. Several characteristics of innovative companies are described. Guidelines for the industry to foster innovation is followed by an example of a university‐industry collaborative partnership.

This paper presents a model for selecting an approach to implement constructability. Constructability can be implemented using an informal or formal approach. Based upon this research, three approaches, one informal and two formal, have been identified and labeled as follows: (1) Informal approach; (2) formal project level; and (3) comprehensive tracking. The model consists of a hierarchy of decision levels. Within these levels, there exist three steps: (1) Individual assessment of owner and project characteristics resulting in a conclusion of informal or formal; (2) combining owner and project characteristics into a single conclusion of informal or formal; and (3) if formal is concluded, a decision as to whether it is formal project‐level or comprehensive tracking. To assess owner and project characteristics, a framework of variables described by parameters has been developed. The characteristics of an owner consist of four variables: (1) Owner type; (2) objectives; (3) in‐house expertise; and (4) constructability resources. The characteristics of a project are described by six variables: (1) Construction type; (2) contracting strategy; (3) project size; (4) technical difficulty; (5) location; and (6) peculiarities. The model was tested by six owners on seven different projects. The results were consistent with the constructability approach selected by the owner. The model can assist owners in efficiently determining the appropriate means by which to incorporate construction knowledge and experience into the designs of their projects.

This paper defines operational failure costs (OFCs), presents a method for their development, and examines their usefulness as a means of equipment management. It considers variables related to the projected use of the equipment in the context of the production team and the construction site as a whole as well as the importance of each piece of equipment. In addition, it takes into account, the point of view of the company in light of management objectives and the number of projects it undertakes concurrently. Furthermore, this paper examines the magnitude and importance of costs caused by equipment failure; demonstrates the importance of equipment assignment; examines the relative equipment importance within a project; avoids the concept of unit cost that is considered a weakness in linear programming approaches; examines the use of OFC as a decision‐support tool for equipment purchase, retirement, replacement, rent, and lease; and evaluates detailed operations plans as well as contingency plans. Finally, it presents an application of the method in a “typical” earthmoving project using SLAM II as the simulation software.

The construction industry contributes a major portion of the waste stream in the United States. Both increased environmental awareness and increased cost for depositing waste have caused many construction companies to reevaluate their practices. So far, no scientific data are available for developing strategies to adjust to the changing parameters and requirements. This paper addresses one critical step in developing a comprehensive waste‐management system; the categorization and quantification of construction wastes. Several residential‐building projects were used to test a conceptual framework for studying the sources of solid wastes in one important segment of the construction industry. Three important categories of building materials—brick and block, dimensional lumber, and Sheetrock—were analyzed using a “sources‐of‐waste” framework. The presented research data indicate that solid wastes in residential construction are primarily scraps resulting from cutting dimensional stock material (e.g., lumber) to size. As will be shown, many factors are related to the amount of such process waste. Strong relationships between poor productivity and high waste generation are suggested.

The number of construction claims has been increasing and has become a time‐consuming and costly element in construction projects in North America. The probability of a claim arising at some point in time is a fact of life on most construction projects. In recent years, contractors have become increasingly concerned with claims, their associated costs, and the poor recovery of actual costs associated with their settlements. Therefore it is in the interest of every contractor to familiarize himself with the means to avoid claims or to be ready to mitigate the consequential damage therefrom. The purpose of this article is to minimize both contractors' and owners' chances of becoming involved in construction claims and disputes. It will emphasize the need to have proper knowledge of the contract and good record keeping, which is essential for the contractor to maintain control over the project and mitigate potential claims. The article includes a list of major causes of construction claims and presents a general claim protection guideline.

Following a previous paper, which described the planning process in the construction company at the early stages of prebid and preconstruction, this paper presents the results of a research program that studied the planning process carried out during construction. The paper focuses on the involvement of the various parties participating in the preparation of construction plans and on the characteristics and roles of various types of meetings that take place during construction. Special attention is given to analyzing the rationale of planning by meetings, as well as to examining the limitations of the current practice in construction companies. The data were accumulated through on‐site interviews and discussions with selected representatives of leading U.S. construction companies recognized for their progressive planning culture. The findings highlight the complexity and continuity of the planning process during construction, and they underline the importance of meetings as a primary planning mode.

Acceptance of asphalt pavements on a lot basis depends on how well the material conforms to specified quality characteristics. If a lot does not fall within the specified tolerance limits for a given characteristic, the contractor payment for that lot may be adjusted according to a predetermined payment schedule. This study evaluated the effect on contractor payment of the variability of the test method. Payment factors based on selected state highway agency specifications, typical of the most commonly used types of acceptance plans, were estimated using simulation techniques. The results were illustrated by plotting the operating characteristics (OC) in terms of expected payment. The OC plots show that the contractor can receive reduced payment even when there is no material variability and the process mean is on target. This reduction was due to the relatively large magnitude of the testing variability as compared with the tolerance range specified in the simulated acceptance plans. The simulation routine developed to estimate contractor payment can, with suitable modifications, be used for any acceptance plan.

The emergence and continued growth of the cellular‐telephone and related telecommunications industry has been phenomenal. The cellular industry has the potential of evolving into a “100‐year industry,” as did wire telephone, radio, and television. New systems (networks) continue to be built, and there is a continuous need to expand existing systems (networks). A cell is the basic building block of a cellular‐telephone system (network). Each cell contains a base station (cell site), which provides transmitting and receiving facilities. This paper discusses various factors that are unique to the development of specifications for sites, buildings, and building improvements used for cellular‐telephone base stations (cell sites). The discussion is limited to the equipment shelter or building, applicable site work, the tower or antenna mounts, and the alternating‐current electrical system with a possible generator backup system. The objective of this paper is to provide insight relevant to the special considerations required in the development of specifications for cellular‐telephone base stations (cell sites).

Many repetitive construction field operations exhibit a learning curve, over which the time or cost per cycle decreases as the cycle number increases. This paper evaluates several mathematical models to determine which best describes the relationship between the activity time or cost and the cycle number. For completed activities, cubic learning curve models are found to provide the most reliable statistical fit, and linear models provide the least reliable fit. The real potential value of learning curves is their ability to predict the time or cost needed to perform future activities. This paper presents a methodology for predicting future activity time or cost based on completed activity data. The best predictors of future performance are found to be linear models. The cubic models that best describe completed activities are poor predictors of future performance.

Computer‐aided design (CAD) is a valuable tool for construction engineering to improve technical support of construction operations. The benefits obtained from CAD applications in the field include increased timeliness and accuracy of field drawings, improved communication of technical information tailored to the specific needs of the user, and increased field productivity. These benefits result from using CAD to automate existing processes and to provide new information for construction. Examples of using CAD to automate existing processes include planning survey layout, planning construction sequence and methods, analyzing concrete placements, designing formwork for concrete, and coordinating subcontractors. The new processes and products include analyzing design requirements, planning site development, analyzing requirements for construction equipment, and planning concrete construction operations. Taking full advantage of the potential benefits of CAD requires experimentation to determine the applications that best fit the needs of the firm, projects, and training. The new construction‐engineering capabilities from effective use of CAD highlight the need to integrate technical information supplied and used by design firms and construction contractors.

This paper presents a framework for developing a policy and guideline for equal‐business‐opportunity programs in the construction industry. The study was conducted by reviewing the current policy, political environment, and problems created in the industry. Then, relevant interest groups were interviewed to identify the components of an acceptable solution. The proposed policy provides an incentive that acts as a catalyst for its implementation, and it makes the awarding of a project more flexible.

Cable‐stayed bridges are becoming increasingly popular in the United States. However, the lack of experience in cable‐stayed bridge construction may lead to unsuccessful projects including cost overruns and schedule delays. In light of these potential problems, a need exists to document the methods of construction used in past cable‐stayed bridge projects. This paper documents the construction of the Burlington Cable‐Stayed Bridge. Throughout the paper, issues regarding constructability and innovation are highlighted. Interviewed project participants agreed that this project was successful. The success is measured by the ability of contractors, subcontractors, material suppliers, and inspectors to deliver a project on time and within budget. This case study describes the general characteristics of the project, significant construction methods and techniques, and factors contributing to project success.

The line‐of‐balance technique (LOB) for planning and scheduling repetitive projects such as houses, high‐rise buildings, precast concrete production, etc., has been used since the 1950s. It has provided unique and useful dimensions to users in perceiving when a project goes out of balance in addition to its essence of capitalizing on the economy of repetition. However, it is still not suitable enough for dealing with repetitive projects where the network of the typical unit is complex and has many branching paths. It is unwieldy in large projects, difficult to update or accelerate, and does not immediately give an accurate measure of the time progress of a project. The critical path method (CPM), on the other hand, is developed to an extent that it predominates in the industry. However, its use on repetitive projects is challenged by its inability to react promptly to the incident problem of changing the sequence of work on the typical units and to maintain work continuity for the working squads. This paper presents a new methodology, CPM/LOB, that adequately integrates the merits of CPM and LOB by attacking the novelty of using resource leveling and the float times calculated by CPM in the LOB. The virtue of the method lies in its invulnerability to changes in the sequence of work and to its ability to maintain work continuity for the working squads of the repetitive activities. It is based on the writers' field experience and extensions of previous researchers' work in the field that was prompted by the necessity.