Journal of Construction Engineering and Management

There has been a great deal of concern expressed in recent years that the United States construction industry is falling behind in international competition through lack of adequate research. However, innovation continues to abound, especially in the United States, but development, the D of R & D, is increasingly hindered by the application of short‐term business economics. This paper examines the various existing institutions for the promotion of research and development and briefly evaluates their successes and limitations. The most effective R & D appears to be that in which an individual construction company and the research organization are closely involved all the way through to field application. While isolated R & D projects may not always show significant economic justification; a series of related innovations can be synergistic and lead to major gains. Innovation, with follow‐up development, is a policy that does pay off; it may even be the determinant between success and failure.

The entire foundation design and construction histories of a project built inside an existing wastewater‐treatment plant are described. The foundation type decision process, based on the subsurface conditions, the existing structure's performance, and the proposed facility's constraints are outlined. In addition, the foundation construction histories, including foundation specifications, construction dewatering and monitoring, pile‐load‐test results and production pile driving records, are summarized. Weak soils existed to significant depths over the entire site as did a high ground‐water table. Since the elevations of the bases of the structures varied significantly, it was also cost effective to vary foundation type depending upon the estimated load‐carrying capacity of the soil at the base of the proposed foundations. Consideration also had to be given to the possibility of detrimental total and differential settlements as a result of dewatering as well as differences in foundation type between existing and proposed structures. This project demonstrated that a properly designed and adequately executed foundation construction program can effectively eliminate the need for expensive underpinning of nearby existing facilities. And, pile load test is a reliable tool to establish the driving criteria, to confirm the design assumptions, and to economize the required pile length.

Before full adaptation of simulation techniques for the analysis and design of construction operations can be implemented, the appropriate statistical tools must be understood and applied as part of the simulation experiment. Most simulation models in construction can be treated as stochastic models. The proper analysis of such models requires: (1) Application of input modeling techniques; (2) appropriate analysis of output parameters of concern based on multiple runs; and (3) validation and verification of the results. This paper describes techniques applicable to the simulation of repetitive construction operations and presents a practical example application to demonstrate how they can be applied. Procedures for selecting input models, methods for solving for the parameters of selected distributions, and goodness‐of‐fit testing for construction data are reviewed. The discussions on output analysis were limited to simulation output that is normal because it is frequently encountered in construction simulation. Methods for checking the normality of output data, building confidence intervals for various output parameters, and validation of simulation models are also addressed.

A structured methodology for modeling the bid/no‐bid decision problem is presented. The method is based on the techniques of decision analysis. The advantages of explicating the decision‐making process is emphasized in the paper. Explication of the process brings numerous advantages, including improved communication and documentation of the underlying technique and assumptions. Suggestions are made about how to explicate the decision‐making process. A procedure for quantifying the subjective evaluation and the aspiration level of a bidder is outlined. The model is based on a set of attributes obtained as a result of a questionnaire survey conducted among 400 of the top general contractors of the United States. It was assumed that these attributes are independent of each other, implying an additive model. The structured decision‐making process, as suggested, is suitable for implementation in a computerized decision‐support system. The method is demonstrated with the help of a hypothetical example.

Typically, the only criterion quantitatively considered in competitive bidding optimization is profit criterion. This may or may not lead to suboptimal decisions when a decision maker's total utility is considered, depending upon the importance of profit relative to other criteria, such as loss avoidance or work force continuity. Common sense generally provides a basis for subjective modification of profit‐based bidding strategies in order to incorporate additional criteria. However, the more complex the situation, the more difficult it becomes to determine what strategy modifications are appropriate. This paper presents a quantitative method for incorporating decision‐maker preferences into the bidding process when multiple criteria are to be considered. The method is based upon the merging of stochastic bidding models with the analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Inputs are cost data, competitor data, and decision‐maker preferences, while output is a set of composite weights by which alternative bid markups may be ranked by multiple criteria.

Computerized relational data‐base systems are developed containing quantifiable data on undergraduate‐ and graduate‐level constrution engineering and management programs. This paper introduces the results of the construction data‐base system study, including data contained in the data‐base systems, uses for the data, benefits of the systems, and a comparison of the undergraduate and graduate construction data‐base systems. The contents of the data bases are collected by extracting information from university and college catalogs, and from an extensive survey of construction programs. The data contained in the files, developed as part of the research, are analyzed to ascertain whether any patterns or trends could be detected. The results of this investigation are presented and a discussion on construction program requirements is used to illustrate the diversity of construction programs available at colleges and universities in the United States. The final product of this research effort is a computerized data‐base program called Collegiate Programs in Construction.

Construction management, like management in other industries, relies on data that can be processed into information. In the information age, many mature technologies provide management with a variety of options for accessing data quickly and reliably. Bar‐code technology is one option receiving more and more attention in general from the construction industry. Since bar codes are now rarely used in construction, knowledge about their applicability in this industry is sparse and lacks any scientific background. In particular, the question of the survivability of bar‐code labels in the construction environment has never been investigated. This paper presents testing methods for bar‐code labels and adhesives that have been specifically developed for the conditions of construction sites. Results of laboratory and field experiments using the testing procedures will be evaluated as a basis for general recommendations. Also presented are data input concepts developed for a specific application. The encouraging results of the research effort suggest that bar‐code technology is indeed ready for use in construction.

This paper presents a model that has the capability to quantify the consequential costs of downtime and lack of availability in four categories. The first, associated resource impact costs, deals with the costs that arise when failure in one machine impacts on the productivity and cost‐effectiveness of other machines working in close association with it. The second category, lack‐of‐readiness costs, addresses the cost that may be incurred when a capital asset is rendered idle by the downtime resulting from a prior failure. The third cost category, service level impact costs, deals with the situation that arises when one machine in a pool of resources fails to the extent that other machines in the pool must work in an uneconomical manner to maintain a given service level. The fourth cost category, alternative method impact costs, deals with the consequential costs that arise when failure causes a change in the method of operations. The methodology developed represents a significant step toward the rational quantification of consequential costs. An understanding of the philosophy behind each category, as well as the methodology used for quantification, should make it possible to model most situations, given a little thought and creativity in applying the model.

A new construction scheduling technique, developed on the basis of progress charts and Gantt (bar) charts, is presented. The main aim of the development is to overcome the problem of fragmentation of activities during the application of the conventional critical path and precedence diagramming methods to construction projects. However, the level of detail available in these methods for the representation of precedence relationships has been preserved and extended. Timing relations are defined among any events in activities instead of the start and end only; these relations may be multiple and expressed in terms of progress level. The concepts of activity timing and scheduling and project timing are elaborated, starting from definitions of temporal constraints for single activities and proceeding through timing relations. The concepts of slacks, free slacks, and criticality are defined and discussed in detail. The process of project timing, project scheduling, updating, and slack computation are illustrated numerically on a small sample project.

Highway construction, housing projects, long bridges, and many other types of construction projects are characterized by repetitive operations. Linear scheduling techniques are known to be the most suitable methods for the overall management of such types of construction projects. The line‐of‐balance technique is one of these linear scheduling methods using known scheduling methods such as the critical path method (CPM), program evaluation and review technique (PERT), and bar chart, and it does not replace them. A preliminary survey of literature reveals that the method has not been formalized enough to be presented by a body of well‐tested algorithms. As a consequence, its use in construction project management has been very limited and no attempts have been made for its computerization. This paper formalizes the line‐of‐balance method and develops its algorithms. The end result is a method suitable for the management of complex construction projects with repetitive activities. As such, it provides scheduling, resource management, project analysis, and project control.

This paper presents a philosophical argument for new construction labor productivity models based on actual factors affecting productivity. The paper reviews various work‐study models that have been borrowed from industrial engineering. These are the delay, activity, and task models. Using research data, these models are shown to be inadequate and unreliable productivity models. It is suggested that these models emphasize work methods, and that the best opportunity to improve productivity is to focus on the factors that management can control. Two reliable productivity models validated specifically for construction situations are presented. These are the factor model, which accounts for project, site, and management factors affecting productivity, and the expectancy model of motivation, which describes why a crew exerts an effort to perform and how this effort relates to productivity. The essential features of the models are described, and it is suggested that the models can be integrated into a single comprehensive model to quantify the factors affecting productivity and to forecast performance.

There is a need within the construction industry to electronically transmit standard documents between designers, owners, contractors, and material suppliers. These documents include purchase orders, requests for quotations, invoices, shipping notifications, materials lists, and payment transfers. Ideally, the transmission should be structured to eliminate or reduce the rekeying of transmitted data. This paper discusses the basic elements of electronic data interchage (EDI), a technology for document transfer that has produced documented cost‐saving benefits in other industries. Through inexpensive translation software that uses industry standards, direct computer‐to‐computer transmission of most any type of document is possible. The fundamentals of electronic data interchange are discussed and an example of document translation using ANSI X12 standards is presented. A case study implementation effort that was examined as part of a research project funded by the Construction Industry Institute is also described herein. This case study illustrates the fact that EDI technology is inexpensive and that tangible cost‐saving benefits can be realized in a relatively short period of time.

This paper describes the legal aspects of contract notice requirements. It is intended as a guide for contract administrators and contractors to help determine if the requirement for written notice has been satisfied as a prerequisite for a claim for an equitable adjustment. Based on an examination of case law, four primary rules are given. Does the notice clause apply? Was the requirement satisfied? Was the owner prejudiced? Can the requirement be waived and was it? Issues under each rule are identified, and examples are given. Other related aspects are also discussed, such as the importance of contract breach, form of communication, role of schedules, requirements for additional detail, and apparent authority. Recommended practices are also given.