Ports '01: America's Ports: Gateway to the Global Economy

Many physical processes concerning the land-ocean interaction are not yet fully understood. Wave run-up and wave overtopping are very important in the design of sloping coastal structures such as breakwaters, sea walls, dikes,... Nowadays, the design of these coastal structures is solely based on small scale model tests. Previous research indicated that wave run-up on rubble mound breakwaters might be underestimated by these small scale model tests. Therefore, wave run-up and wave overtopping on a prototype rubble mound breakwater are studied in detail. A clear difference between prototype measurement results and small scale test results is noticed. Prototype measurements show wave run-up values which are up to 40% higher than the values obtained by small scale laboratory tests. Moreover, the dimensionless run-up value is dependent on the water level: when the water depth decreases, valuesincrease from 1.80 at high tide up to 2.25 at mean tide. These valuesare much higher than the values found in literature and used as a designrule.

The present paper describes the technical aspects of a new floating breakwater concept that was installed at the Port of Brownsville Marina located in Port Orchard Bay, Washington State, in 1999. The breakwater incorporates submerged porous treated timber "wave fences" installed on either side of the concrete pontoons to reduce wave transmission. Eight concrete pontoon units are connected to each other by a patented rubber cushion shear tube and bolt assembly on each side of the pontoon, and are held in place with steel anchor piles. A numerical model based on an eigenfunction expansion method was developed to study floating breakwaters equipped with pairs of wave fences of different porosity. A physical model test was conducted to study the performance of the breakwater under the action of oblique waves. A structural model was used to compute the design force envelopes for the concrete floats, using transient wave loads from the model studies as input. The unique solution developed in this project provides a cost-effective option for coastal and marina protections using floating breakwaters.

The paper describes the construction details of the breakwater constructed in India for the new Ennore Coal Port Project. The primary purpose of the new port is for the importation of coal for the North Madras Thermal Power Station and other power stations. The Breakwater consists of South & North Breakwater of lengths 1040M and 3070M respectively, out of which the North breakwater is considered to be the longest in India. The rocks were supplied from a quarry (Karikkal) 125 Km away. The quarry is a virgin narrow and high hill having temples on the hill and a village near the foot. It is interspersed by layers of murrum and other soft material making winning of rock difficult. Specialized and controlled drilling and blasting was used to get various rock sizes (1 kg to 18 tons) in the required proportion to avoid wastage. Specially fabricated steel skips of 20 tons capacity were loaded on trucks/trailers for transporting rocks to a railway siding 25 Km away, and loaded in railway wagons by gantry. Each railway wagon carried 3 skips and traveled 100 Km away carrying 1800 tons of rock and unloaded at a specially designed stacking area near the breakwater to hold up to 1.5 million tons of rocks. The total quantity of rock required for the two breakwaters is about 3 million tons having seven grades of rock from 1 Kg to 18 Tons to form the quarry run, filter layer, toe layer, and the armor layers, etc.

Rubble-mound breakwaters are port structures of major importance. Their seismic behavior has so far attracted limited attention due to the fact that in case of failure, one can simply add more material to restore the structure to its previous shape. However, more thorough investigation is required in cases where settlement of a breakwater would produce unacceptable damage to port installations in its lee, or have other detrimental effects. The present study, funded by the General Secretariat for Research and Technology, Greece, aims at investigating the seismic response of a rubble-mound breakwater. To this effect experiments were carried out, supported by mathematical modeling. Two physical models were used: one on solid bed and another sitting on a layer of sand. Acceleration and pressure sensors were fitted in the models. The latter were placed in a container fixed onto the shaking table of the Engineering Seismology Laboratory of the National Technical University, Greece. Both models were tested to horizontal shaking of increasing intensity. In total 38 tests were carried out on both models. It was found that the most prominent mode of failure was due to the settling of the structure into the loose foundation soil, which produced the characteristic swelling of the sea-bed close to the mound toes.

This paper presents the development and results of a series of studies which have been completed or are currently underway, including: (1) Development and verification of a combined suite of numerical wave and ship motion models, (2) Wind and wave data collection efforts, (3) Video data collection of ship motions. The paper will also discuss proposed future studies to improve the accuracy of the models.

One of the main aspects that can govern the design of an open piled jetty platform is the wave climate. Often a better way to deal with this is to ensure that the platform deck lies above the anticipated level of the wavetops. Other considerations, however, sometimes dictate that the platform must be below this level. No clear (international) guidelines exist with respect to the vertical wave impact load on relatively large horizontal slabs such as jetty platforms. Using published results of earlier investigations into the phenomenon of wave slamming and wave entrapment under decks a practical design approach has been developed. This approach has been used in the design of two jetty platforms. Both structures have been hit by hurricane induced waves since their completion and survived both the onslaught with only minor structural damage. This paper will discuss the method with which the design waves were forecast and explain the chosen design formulae and design of the platform including the results of the lessons learned from the hurricane attacks.

The accretion of steep sediment mounds under pile supported wharf structures is not a new phenomena in waterfront engineering. However, comprehending their behavior and their impact on the waterfront structures is a significant challenge. The development of mounds presents unique and formidable aspects associated with classical geotechnical engineering, soil-structure interaction behavior, and structural engineering. Experience shows that the mounds have the potential to affect port operations, maintenance dredging, stability problems and can adversely impact the structures. Two case histories will be provided showing the extent and growth of mounds from original berth construction to present, the geotechnical engineering properties of the mounds presented, and an overview of the stability of the mounds. Each case will include a description of formal geotechnical studies undertaken to gather information and the overall impacts of the mounds on the structures. In one instance, the movement of berths was corroborated with measured tidal fluctuations and the unstable sediment mounds. In the second instance, the potential for deep-seated slope failure and the resulting lateral loads on the piles supporting the berths is discussed. The two sites where valuable information has been gathered and analyzed are Berths 12 through 21 at the North Port in Port Klang, Malaysia and Berths 1 through 9 at the North Carolina State Ports in Wilmington, North Carolina.

The Middle Harbor Enhancement Area (MHEA) consists of approximately 190 acres of old U.S. Navy berthing areas, navigation channel and turning basin in the Oakland Middle Harbor that will be transformed into shallow water habitat using dredged material fill. The area will be bound by a rock jetty and sheetpile wall to confine the dredged material fill within the site and to protect the site from waves, tidal currents and navigation effects. Several methodologies were used to compare the range of estimated rock sizes for the jetty including ACES (breakwater and revetment modules), RIPRAP (channel riprap software), and Hudson and van der Meer formulations. The recommended design for the jetty consisted of the following: (a) two layers of armor stone (3 ft layer thickness) with a W₅₀ of 4,000 lbs, (b) two layers of underlayer with a W₅₀ of 250 to 400 lb stones, and (c) a quarry run core with W₅₀ of 0.65 to 20 lbs. A finite element hydrodynamic model (RMA-2) was subsequently used to determine the impacts of the proposed jetty on nearby areas in the Oakland Middle Harbor. Model results revealed that the jetty would not have an adverse effect on the hydrodynamics and flow patterns near the project site.

Ferteco Mineração S.A., the third largest producer of Brazilian iron ore was exporting ore until August of 1999, through other exporters' ports at high railroad and transshipment cost. The feasibility study carried by Soros Associates in 1993, upgraded to a bankable report in 1995, selected a Dual Linear Loader (DLL) as the most economical shiploader to load iron ore in Cape size ore carriers. In compliance with the Brazilian Port Legislation, Ferteco obtained in 1997 a concession to implement and operate, through its subsidiary Companhia Portuaria Baia de Sepetiba (CPBS), an iron ore export terminal within the Bay of Sepetiba, located 80 km. West of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. CPBS authorized Soros Associates to carry out the final design of the 10,000 tph DLL, prepare bid packages, interview and recommend manufacturers, supervise fabrication and erection of the DLL until its commissioning, which occurred on September of 1999.

Many wharves have nonlinear berths that meet at a corner. It is often economical to share cranes between these berths. To share, cranes must transfer between them. This is no simple task. Transfer methods range from shuttle systems that move the cranes between the berths to curved rails that the cranes gantry on. Recently, the most popular method has been the curved rail. This seemingly simple method is actually quite complicated to design and has many options for the owner. Larger curve radii use up valuable yard space. Smaller radii may require a side shift mechanism in the gantry system to accommodate gage change. Working to the corner requires switches and a power transfer method.

The Ceres Paragon terminal in Amsterdam has been getting a lot of attention because of its unique indented berth. Much has been written on the terminal; this paper will focus on the cranes that will serve the terminal. The indented berth, the first of its kind in the world, poses many special requirements and challenges for the cranes. The indented berth is capable of serving ship from both sides. As many as nine cranes can operate on the ship in the slip at one time. Operating cranes on both sides of the ship introduces the potential of collision of cranes and boxes over the ship. This requires a reliable collision avoidance system. This paper will present the challenges, special requirements, and design solutions for these cranes. We will also present some of their special features, including semi-automatic operation, corner transitioning, and intermittent rope supports. The features presented here are based on the cranes for the Ceres terminal, but many of these features will eventually be required for future cranes.

Worldwide container traffic continues to grow faster than the worldwide economy. Increased traffic means increased ship size and terminal throughput. Ship size and production demands lead to bigger and faster cranes: cranes capable of serving 22-wide ships and lifting 65 metric tons under spreader and 100 metric tons under hook. These new jumbo cranes are imposing greater loads on the wharf structure, loads that wharf designers are just now beginning to realize. The jumbo cranes are big: 65-m outreach, 37-m lift height, increased wind area, and increased weight and inertia forces. Their designs are affected by trolley type, maintenance needs, automation, and trolley and hoist speeds. Even their power requirements are changing. These factors result in heavier wheel loads, greater stowage and tie-down forces, and increased collision bumper loads, creating the need for stronger wharves. Even though the overall wharf design doesn't change much for these cranes, the designer needs to look at the capacities of the rail girders, the stowage devices, and the collision bumper. Stowage pin sockets and tie-down brackets are key elements in the wharf that often get overlooked. More cranes are damaged from the failure of the connection in the wharf during high winds than from the failure of the crane itself. This paper presents current design issues for jumbo cranes and discusses how they effect wharves.

The regulatory framework under which upland beneficial use of dredge material is authorized and the process for gaining approval for an upland use differ in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. This paper discusses the regulatory framework and approval process for upland beneficial use of dredge material in each of these states. It also compares and discusses direct contact soil cleanup criteria used as guidance for determining acceptable contaminant levels. Recommendations are made for encouraging upland beneficial use of dredge material.

The beneficial uses of dredge material from the Houston-Galveston Navigation Channel (HGNC) to create large-scale wetlands represents a blueprint for other large U.S. ports. The port authority's interagency coordination team, the Beneficial Uses Group (BUG), successfully developed an innovative 50–year plan to deal with dredge material disposal from the channel widening and maintenance project. The creation of intertidal wetlands will initiate the restoration of the United States second most productive estuary, in concert with the Galveston Bay National Estuary Plan, while capturing increasingly scarce government financing for port maintenance and improvement operations. An overview of the various beneficial uses of dredge material in the HGNC enlarging project is presented with a detailed investigation of the Bayport Demonstration Marsh. The HGNC project is analyzed as a prototype for successful extensive wetland creation ventures, and several key design criteria for similar large-scale marsh creation projects are given.

The Pier T Marine Terminal is a new 375-acre (152-hectare) container terminal being developed by the Port of Long Beach at the site of the former Long Beach Naval Complex. Development includes demolition of an extensive array of upland and in-water facilities, import of fill material, site grading, and construction of new utility systems and container terminal facilities. In-water improvements in the West Basin include dredging the approach channel, turning basin, and berths to a minimum depth of -50 feet (15.2 meters) mean-lower-low-water, and construction of an approximately 20-acre (8-ha) landfill for the intermodal rail yard, a rock revetment slope, and a 5,000-foot (1,520 m) deep-draft concrete wharf. Phased project dredging includes removal of nearly 2.3 million cubic yards (1.8 million cubic meters) of clean sediments and over 3 million cy (2.3 million cm) of sediments unsuitable for unconfined aquatic disposal because of chemical contamination. Project planning and permitting emphasized reuse of dredged material as much as possible in order to support Pier T construction and other Port terminal improvements and to provide appropriate disposal of unsuitable sediments.

This paper addresses the successful negotiations, site parameter identification, and implementation of a habitat feature using rocky materials from the outer channel dredging originally slated for disposal at LA-2. The specifics include documentation of the commercial navigational concerns, fishery resources, contractor capabilities, and the ability to measure the project progress. The ultimate project completion resulted in a guide for future rocky habitat creation.

This paper addresses how the Pier 400 Project has undergone a series of lessons learned that have and will continue to be applied to large waterfront projects. In particular, expectations of the project intent, construction documentation, compliance with environmental requirements, and contractual capability were all tested in some manner, which resulted in innovative solutions to completing the Pier 400 Project.

Puget Sound Naval Shipyard provides a range of services for U.S. Navy submarines and surface ships including the deactivation and recycling of nuclear-powered ships. In order to maintain nuclear-powered carriers, the Navy needed to upgrade their existing homeport facilities. In addition, the Bremerton Naval Complex was placed on the National Priorities List in 1994 which required the Navy to implement a cleanup under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA). As part of the homeport expansion and upgrade, 280,000 m³ of sediment was dredged, of which 110,000 m³ were deemed unsuitable, and approximately 115,000 m³ of contaminated marine sediments were scheduled for removal and disposal as part of the Operable Unit B Remedial Action. The Navy, EPA, and Washington State Department of Ecology recognized both the environmental and economic advantages of combining the OU B Marine Remedial Action with the homeport dredging.

Semi diurnal tides prevail on the coast of the Republic of Guinea. During neap tides the tidal currents are not very distinct. Significant for the morphodynamic activity are the currents during mean and spring tides. It was discovered that the sedimentations in the access channel are caused by flood tide currents. These lead to eddy currents in the entrance which cause especially high rates of sedimentation. The following paper will analyse and explain the causes of the sedimentations on the basis of the results of the performed measurements. Suggestions will be made how maintenancework can be optimised. Dredging can be reduced either by alternative methods or by structural modifications.

Successful port development projects (e.g., channel deepening, upgrading waterfront port facilities) require plans to avoid and minimize environmental impacts where possible, and to provide mitigation as necessary. Adverse impact avoidance and minimization are developed as projects are designed and are incorporated into the final design. Unavoidable impacts, on the other hand, require compensatory mitigation measures. Acceptable project plans must be technically sound, provide the environmental and economic benefits identified by project stakeholders, and take into account institutional/political constraints. We have found that successful approaches are predicated on effective partnering, not only among all project stakeholders, but also between project engineers and scientists at the pre-design stage. This results in projects that are specifically designed to include built-in environmental protection features and mitigation opportunities. This paper will use examples from New York/New Jersey Harbor to show how waterfront projects can provide environmental benefits, cost-effectively.

The work has been focused on the problem of the urban solid waste disposal and of the dumps of terrous and/or rocky materials coming from the background, and from houses and obsolete industrial plants demolitions. In Italy every year 60 millions of tons' of waste are produced, whose a quota of 5% is submitted to a treatment, a half of this portion is utilized for energetic recovery. The rest of production partially differentiated is buried in controlled inland dumps. The hundred thousands of cubic meters of materials coming from escavations are so far employed in extension of industrial, port and airport areas on the coast. We take as sample the Province of Genoa (about 800 tons/day of urban solid waste partially differentiated and about 1500 tons/day of materials disposal — dump) and we have designed the following alternative proposal: the waste partially differentiated (15%), after to be taken under a treatment of inertisation and of mix up with crushed calcareous debris, are packed in geotextile bags as containers, and placed in circumscribed sea surfaces to form reclamations for the creation of areas useful for intermodal activities in port environment. The system proposed by us has been patended in Italy by the "Group" Progettisti e Costruttori Associati — Genoa".

The Central Artery/Tunnel (CA/T) Project is the largest public infrastructure project in the United States. Following ten years of environmental review and analysis, the Project has now moved through the design phases into construction. One of the more daunting tasks for the Project was planning and designing the crossing of the Charles River between Boston, Cambridge and Somerville, Massachusetts. The Crossing represented one of the most complex design and construction challenges and was the single-most contentious portion of the CA/T Project. The Project includes the highway elements connecting the major north/south interstate-Route I-93 - to the state highway system and downtown Boston and was needed to improve one of the most hazardous accident locations in the country. The design development had to accommodate several complicated transportation elements and occurs in an area characterized by challenging physical features, major public infrastructure facilities, sensitive environmental resources and aesthetic concerns. This paper discusses the means by which Project staff worked with local, state and federal agencies as well as several diverse stakeholders in refining the Project design and developing a workable mitigation plan to offset Project impacts in this area.

As in many regions of the United States, the Pacific Northwest has experienced an economic boom for a number of years. The boom in the Northwest has drawn more people to the region, resulting in an expanding need for infrastructure to support growing commercial and recreational demands. This paper looks at the permitting issues involved in the successful development of two recent projects: (1) construction of a new wharf on the Columbia River at the Port of Longview, and (2) Construction of new waterfront park facilities for the City of Portland on the Willamette River.

The Village of Irvington, NY has created a waterfront park on a former industrial site having documented soil and groundwater contamination. The five-hectare park will include baseball fields, a soccer field, tree-lined walks, open areas for passive recreation, and small boat access to the Hudson River. The creation of the park was made possible by new legislation and funding from the State of New York Department of Environmental Conservation under 6 New York Code of Rules and Regulations (NYCRR), Subpart 375 that promotes the transformation of environmentally impaired sites into viable properties providing public benefits. The Irvington Waterfront Park is the first project completed under New York State's Brownfield Program. It clearly demonstrates how innovative engineering and a thorough understanding of environmental considerations can be used to transform contaminated properties into valuable public assets.

The Port Authority of the Cayman Islands is planning to proceed with the replacement and expansion of the existing storm-damaged dock in George Town, Grand Cayman. Channels leading to the new dock will be dredged, and the dredged material will be used as fill for the dock and to construct additional land area for cargo storage. As a part of the permitting process, the Cayman Island Department of the Environment (DOE) has requested that several coastal and environmental aspects of this work be analyzed and presented in an Environmental Impact Report (EIR). The report, with subsequent addenda, included the results of hydrographic surveys, biological surveys, wave refraction analyses, sediment transport analyses, cultural resource investigations, reviews of applicable dredging techniques, and alternative design studies. The findings indicate that the project would have minimal environmental impacts. The DOE and Caymanian Government are presently reviewing the results of the EIR for project approval.

A plume of hydrocarbons was discovered beneath the town of Avila Beach, California in the mid 80's. An agreement was reached between Unocal, which had operated a marine oil terminal, tank farm, and underground pipeline in the town, various regulatory agencies, and other stakeholders for the removal of affected soils. Removal was completed by excavating much of the beachfront portion of the town and part of the beach itself, replacing with clean sand, and facilitating the reconstruction of the town. The excavation required the demolition of the existing Avila Beach seawall and the demolition of a section of the Municipal Pier. Both were reconstructed in conjunction with completion of the remediation. The design work involved extensive coastal as well as structural engineering. All of the restoration work, including preservation of the historic buildings, was accomplished within the guidelines of a newly developed community plan designed to preserve the character of Avila Beach.

In the context of a regional environmental mitigation program of the great metropolitan Casablanca, Morocco, the authors of this paper conducted an evaluation of the air emissions from the operations at the Port of Casablanca. The principal exports include phosphates, minerals, fruits and vegetables. The principal imports include coal, grains, and sugar. Particulate emissions are generated in the transfer of these materials and goods from and to ships. This paper describes an approach to estimate the emissions form the port. This approach includes particulate emissions monitoring and inverse modeling with rigorous data quality assurance and quality control. This resulted in an estimate of 252 tonnes/year of particulate emissions from the port. This information will be integrated into a city wide air quality monitoring and forecasting program.

In 1997 and 1998, over 5.4 million cubic meters (cm) of material were dredged to deepen the San Diego Harbor to accommodate NIMITZ class aircraft carriers at Naval Air Station North Island. This was the largest dredging project undertaken in San Diego Harbor since 1975 when the Army Corps of Engineers dredged the back channel to –35.0 ft MLLW. The project was completed in 1998 by a joint venture of Great Lakes and Stuyvesant Dredging Company at a total cost of $40 Million. Siting studies, sediment transport analysis and environmental assessments of 16 nearshore and on-shore beach sites in San Diego County were carried out and a total of nine beach sites were permitted for beneficial use of the predominantly sandy materials. The project was complicated when munitions (unexploded ordnance or UXO) were discovered in spoils being pumped to the on-shore beach sites. This necessitated a study of all available technologies to remove munitions from over 3 million cm of material planned for beach nourishment. Ultimately, it was determined that, due to the project schedule, environmental regulations, funding constraints and large quantities of dredge spoils, it was not feasible to economically screen the munitions. An alternative approach was developed to complete the dredging and provide for beach nourishment.

This paper focuses on the integration of engineering and CEQA planning and what engineering design and project planning can contribute to CEQA analysis. This paper does not address the specific efforts of the CEQA analysis itself.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is tasked with designing and building navigation and flood control structures located within bodies of water including rivers, waterways, and coastal areas. Each of these structures has a foundation system traditionally designed for construction "in-the-dry", i.e. within a pre-installed cofferdam, for isolation from the surrounding body of water. Faster-paced and more economical subaqueous construction without cofferdam isolation has been successfully demonstrated especially by the marine offshore industry, and the Corps is taking advantage of innovative technology. As more experience is gained from "in-the-wet" foundation construction in shallow inland waterways and ports, innovative approaches to traditional foundation design and construction will likely become more prominent. This paper provides a general overview of underwater foundation types and design considerations.

The authors derive one dimensional governing equation for the dynamic pore water pressure generated in a horizontally reclaimed sand zone due to the propagation of dynamic pressure to it. The equation's reliability is examined by comparing the solution with the model test results. The comparison focuses on the attenuation and phase delay of dynamic pressure induced during its propagation into the reclaimed sand zone. The comparison reveals that the following two facts predicted by the solution are verified by the results of the model tests: (1) Dynamic pressure exponentially decreases with the propagated distance in the reclaimed sand zone and the attenuation rate is inversely proportional to the square root of the period of the dynamic pressure when the physical properties of both pore water and reclaimed sand are kept constant. (2) Phase delay linearly increases with the propagated of dynamic pressure. The rate of the phase delay is also inversely proportional to the square root of the period of the dynamic pressure when the physical properties of both pore water and reclaimed sand are kept constant.

An oil well platform fabricator looked to develop property along the mouth of a Mississippi bayou. They required a deepwater port, 610 m (2000 ft) long, with stable ground for loading and unloading. The marsh ground conditions posed a serious challenge to this development, which included a 10.7 m (35 ft) deepwater access. A sheetpile bulkhead and dead-man system was initially designed to stabilize the future cut. However, earth lateral pressure from a soft, clayey silt/sandy clay behind the sheetpile was excessive and jeopardized the stability of the bulkhead. The engineers elected to specify a soil mixing solution to treat a 14.63-m (48-ft) wide block of soft soils behind the sheetpile to effectively reduce the lateral stresses imposed on the wall. Using a cellular arrangement of 2.14-m (7-ft) diameter soil mix columns, the contractor effectively proposed an in situ gravity wall structure that exceeded the ground improvement requirements. This paper describes the design of the earth support structure, the proposed ground improvement by soil mixing, the construction of the soil mixing, the quality control aspects of the work, and the performance of the structure in service. Testing of the soil mix product will be described, including pre-construction laboratory work and production quality control tests.

In contrast to other types of anchors, prestressed ground anchors are routinely used in clayey or cohesive soils. One of the problems that need to be considered concerns the soil creep with time (i.e. rheological properties). Clays and cohesive soils in general exhibit creep behavior in which deformation proceeds with time under a state of applied load. Under these conditions, owing to rheological properties of cohesive soils, anchor supports tend to move gradually, the result being that the forces exerted on them decrease, and general redistribution of stresses in the structures occurs. When designing a sheet pile bulkhead supported by ground anchors embedded in creep-sensitive soils, it is necessary to recognize that its stress-strain state will gradually change with time due to "creep" of the anchors within the soil mass.

The existing Oakland Harbor channels and berth areas are too shallow to accommodate the latest generation of deep-draft container ships. The Oakland Harbor Navigation Improvement (–50-Foot) Project will deepen the Oakland Harbor channels and berth areas from Elevation —12.8 meters (—42 feet) Mean Lower Low Water Datum (MLLW) to Elevation —15.2 meters (—50 feet), producing approximately 9.8 million m³ (12.8 million yd³) of dredged soil. The unique aspect of the –50-Foot Project is that it will be one of the first major dredging projects in the United States where the large majority of the dredged materials is earmarked for beneficial reuse. Most of the soil will be used as fill to create wetlands or shallow water habitat at three sites. This type of soil reuse required extensive characterization of both the environmental and geotechnical properties of the dredged materials. This paper focuses on the methods used to investigate the subsurface conditions and characterize the geotechnical properties of the dredged materials, as well as the methods used to estimate the quantities of anticipated dredged materials. The distribution and geotechnical properties of the soils are important for channel slope design, for the allocation of dredged materials to various reuse sites, for determining the dredge sequencing and for providing baseline geotechnical data for bidding purposes. Digital-terrain-modeling was used to develop accurate quantity estimates and facilitate three-dimensional portrayal of the subsurface conditions. Finally, the lessons learned and the key issues associated with the geotechnical investigation are discussed.

At 70 hectares (170 acres), the Pier A terminal is currently the largest container terminal at the Port of Long Beach (Port), and also the largest terminal facility operated anywhere in the world by Hanjin Shipping Company. Based on the Port's delivery schedule, this $277 million state-of-the-art container terminal project was put on a fast track. Design and construction proceeded simultaneously. From geotechnical perspectives, most of the critical issues are attributable to its geographic location, history of the project site, and its past usage. The site is located on the north shore of the Cerritos Channel, with the Terminal Island (TI) Freeway on its western boundary, and is situated in between the highly active Palos Verdes and Newport-Inglewood fault zones. The critical geotechnical issues included: high seismicity of the region; compressible and liquefiable soil conditions; downdrag potential to TI Freeway and project infrastructures; foundation design of the wharf and other structures; seismic design of waterfront slope and wharf structure, on-site remediation and encapsulation of contaminated materials; and certification of existing artificial fill. This paper presents the highlights of the geotechnical solutions and lessons learned that can be used for future port facilities. For details, the reader is advised to read the original reports submitted to the Port by Leighton and Associates, Inc. (Leighton) where the author worked earlier and served as the project manager.

Historically, port projects in the United States have been delivered on a Design-Bid-Build (low bid) basis. A few select projects have been delivered on a Design-Build basis. To date, these project delivery systems have served the industry well. However, there is an evolving environment that favors a new method of project delivery, Design-Build-Operate-Transfer (DBOT). This method of project delivery has been employed extensively overseas and on a limited basis within the United States in industries other than the maritime industry. It has been used very seldom within the port industry to date, however the use is being considered on several projects at this time. Simply stated, this method of project delivery is one where the DBOT organization (a private corporation) finances, designs and builds the required facilities, operates and maintains these facilities for a prescribed period of time and at the end of that period of time transfers the ownership of these facilities to the public entity (port authority).

Traditional design/build projects often embody one or more examples of unique ownership, innovative funding agreements, fast-track construction, and/or complex technical design requirements. It is not often that design/build projects include all of these diverse challenges. When they do, risk is increased, and the demand for process control and skilled project management increases dramatically. This paper provides a candid discussion of the project management and technical challenges that were encountered and met. Recommendations made for improved project management strategies.

Schnitzer Steel's timber seawall on the Hylebos Waterway in Tacoma, Washington, was failing due to age and overload. The site sees heavy loads and usage from the scrap metal processing and loading that are everyday operations. Scrap loading was being performed with relatively light capacity cranes on floating barges moored against the bulkhead. Because loading operations would have to be suspended during construction, maintaining a short schedule was a key consideration in the replacement of this facility. This paper will describe the design/build process, as well as the design features of the wharf and seawall, and construction experiences.

The Seychelles are a group of islands located in the middle of the Indian Ocean. The country is primarily dependent on tourism for its foreign exchange. Fregate island, one of the smaller most isolated granite islands, houses Seychelles' only 5-star hotel. The marina is of paramount importance for running hotel operations as it enables supplies and water sports. When the breakwater, that secures undisturbed entrance of the harbour, starts eroding after only one monsoon, the lifeline of the hotel is being endangered. The main breakwater was constructed as a rock armoured breakwater. It extends beyond the steep sloped edge of the coral reef. During the Southeast monsoon, high waves approach the island and break onto the breakwater continuously. Outside the Southeast monsoon, swell from distant cyclones may reach the site and last for days. As the rock armour size used to extend the breakwater during construction was inadequate to withstand the more severe wave climate at deeper water, the breakwater started to erode.

Structural inspections are currently conducted underwater throughout North America to varying standards of practice. Often, the purpose of the inspection work has been poorly defined, resulting in either too much or too little information collected to support the inspection objectives. In addition, inspections performed by unqualified personnel have led to serious problems in the past. Such instances have resulted from a lack of understanding of structural load paths and redundancies, lack of knowledge regarding construction techniques used when the structure was built, and impropriety resulting from having a vested interest in overstating damage that must then be repaired.

Underwater condition surveys have become common practice for marine structures as owners strive to ensure safety and protect their infrastructure investment. Due to limited visibility and the need to remove marine growth, it is impractical to inspect 100 percent of each component underwater. For this reason, it has long been a common practice on pile-supported structures to remove marine growth in three bands (waterline, mudline, and midpoint) on a "representative" sample of piles. A sample size of 10 percent is commonly used, although other guidelines are also used. The problem with this current industry practice is that the sample size has no reliable statistical basis. This has become a particular issue with large structures supported by several thousand piles, where the current industry practice may result in far more piles inspected than are necessary to reliably assess the condition of the structure. The cost impact in such cases can be significant. In order to improve the current industry practice, a methodology has been developed for the selection of sample size based on a statistical approach. It is recognized that any such method could get complex and onerous if it attempted to distinguish between levels of deterioration and the possible structural consequences for various structure types and construction materials. For this reason, a simplified approach was chosen which focuses on "reportable defects". Using this method, a pile will either exhibit a "reportable defect" or not, with corresponding numerical representation of 0 and 1, respectively. A reportable defect is defined as any defect that is significant enough to justify making a note of it in the inspection notes.

What is to be gained by a useful structural life assessment of older cranes? What is "useful life?" The useful structural life is the remaining time the crane can be operated with an acceptable risk of failure. When first asked to consider acceptable risk, the usual response is an acceptable risk is no risk. Unfortunately, all structures have a reliability of less than 1.00. For cranes, the most common acceptable risk of a single structural detail failing is about 1 in 50, using the damage tolerant design philosophy. The consequences of the failure of one detail may be limited with periodic inspection. This paper presents the methods used to develop a structural inspection program and to evaluate the useful structural life using statistical analysis and the principles of fracture mechanics.

The U.S. Navy has several hundred major ships in active service. A number of others are in reserve status. There are a variety of support and service craft and some older ships that serve as museums. Often, many ships spend a significant portion of time in port, and, consequently, are especially vulnerable to severe storms when they are under repair or permanently moored. These ships are each extremely valuable (some larger ships cost billions of dollars to construct), usually manned and could provide a significant hazard if they broke away from their moorings. Therefore, practical standards are required to ensure that facilities, ship mooring fittings and mooring lines are adequate to safely moor ship during these events. This paper gives a broad perspective of planning issues, design criteria, analytical methods, construction inspection and testing, and periodic maintenance inspection and repair to ensure safe mooring of U.S. Navy ships.

Pier 1 at the Naval Education and Training Center in Newport, RI, was constructed in 1954 for the conventional mooring of naval vessels. The original design required vessels to cast off and ride out storm conditions at sea. However, the U.S. Navy had a need to relocate the inactive aircraft carriers USS Forrestal and USS Saratoga, and the inactive battleship USS Iowa, to Pier 1. As an inactive mooring facility, the pier must withstand the loads imposed by the moored vessels during storms. Further, in this case, the loads are magnified since the battleship is moored to one of the carriers because Pier 1 is too short to accommodate two vessels along one side. The Navy proposed to add new batter piles to the pier to resist the unusually high mooring forces.

A method of estimating the number and size of mooring fixtures required to secure a ship at a pier in steady winds ranging from 30 to 60 knots is presented for cruise ships ranging in size from roughly 50,000 to 250,000 gross registered tons (GRT). The method requires physical characteristics of the ship, calculation of wind force coefficients, mooring line capacity, and either the actual or assumed average vertical angle of mooring lines, excluding the spring or longitudinal lines. Changes in water level can be considered by varying the average vertical angle of the mooring lines. The method discusses and extends the spreadsheet EMOOR, a planning and preliminary design tool for evaluating ship moorings at piers and wharves, to suggest the number of mooring lines and the size and number of breasting bollards necessary to safely moor cruise ships. Static mooring analysis results for six cruise ship mooring design projects are compared with the prediction of mooring line requirements from EMOOR. Guidelines for achieving optimum mooring efficiency for planning and design of new berthing facilities or the expansion of existing facilities for larger vessels are also identified. The information presented here is for general use and intended to assist port planners and designers with a starting point for providing safe and efficient pierside moorings. Data or results contained herein cannot be extrapolated or interpolated for application to other vessels or circumstances. The methods outlined here should be used only as a precursor to final project design, including a formal mooring analysis based on specific ship parameters and governing site conditions and constraints.

A mooring system consisting of two catenary type opposing mooring buoys has been designed and installed in Labadee Bay, Haiti. The mooring system was designed to accommodate Royal Caribbean International's first Voyager Class cruise ship, Voyager of the Seas, which is the largest cruise ship in the world. The paper describes the field investigations, the analyses and numerical modeling performed for establishing the design loads, the engineering design, and finally the installation of the two mooring systems by a specialized anchor-handling vessel. The focus is on the specific challenges encountered in mooring a ship of this size in a very confined area, with soft soil conditions and sudden locally generated winds.

The Port of Emden is situated in the North-Sea on the western border of the German Bight in the Ems-River estuary. The access to Emden port is possible for vessels up to 80.000 dwt via the Emden fairway. Using the tidal situation in the estuary, drafts up to 10.7 m (35 ft) can be accommodated at high tide. The outer harbour is under the influence of the tidal range. To arrive at the inner port it is necessary to lock in the small "Lock Nesserland" which is 110 years old, or in the so called "Great Sea-lock" built in the early. 20^th century. The port of Emden is known world-wide as the distribution hub for cars manufactured by the German Volkswagen Company. In the year 2000, the annual port turnover will reach 1 million cars. Other goods handled in the port of Emden are containers (100.000 TEU), forest products (1 million tons) and liquefied marble (1 million tons).

As a moving ship passes another ship, it exerts forces and moments on that ship. This passing ship phenomenon is of particular concern in the design and analysis of ship mooring systems alongside ship fairways and channels. This paper uses results from several published model tests and analytical studies to develop a method for estimating the forces and moments induced by the passing ship on the moored ship. Published results of earlier studies were difficult to interpret and apply. The new method is easy to use and provides good estimates of the forces and moments imposed by passing ships.

This paper provides an overview of the New York/New Jersey Harbor Navigation project and serves as a guide to four additional papers on the same project. The companion papers deal with specific issues, namely: (1) navigation planning aspects, (2) marine terminal planning aspects, (3) environmental aspects and (4) hydrodynamic/water quality modeling efforts. The project examined the feasibility of deepening the channels that serve the Port of New York and New Jersey. The port is the third largest container port in the U.S., one of the largest petroleum ports in the U.S. and serves 17 million consumers in the States of New York and New Jersey in addition to the larger 31-state hinterland. The deepest channels serving container terminals are currently authorized for deepening to 45 feet mean low water (MLW). This paper outlines the principle issues and study elements associated with deepening the harbor beyond 45 feet MLW.

This paper summarizes the plan formulation process that served as the basis for recommending proposed navigation improvements for the Port of New York and New Jersey. The recommended project consists of deepening several channel segments within the Port of New York and New Jersey to a controlling low water depth of 50 feet. The total cost of the recommended plan is about $2.3 billion and is comprised of dredging and dredged material disposal, various improvements to marine terminals within the port, relocation of specific utility lines, and environmental mitigation. The plan formulation process involved selecting the optimal number of channel pathways and the optimal depth for each pathway.

The paper is limited to container terminals, as the continued trend of containerization is expected in Port of NY/NJ. The Port Authority Strategic Master Plan for the Port of New York and New Jersey and the Port Masterplan for the City of New York both focused primarily on container terminal development. Several alternatives were developed for each terminal in these reports, however, this paper is limited to the non-Federal sponsors' improvement plans at the time of the study. It should be noted that, since that time, terminal plans have continued to be revised and updated by various public and private interests. Terminals handling other cargo types, namely automobiles and other roll-on/roll-off (ro-ro), dry bulk, and liquid bulk were also considered in the Harbor Navigation Study. Expansion at those facilities was neither warranted nor endorsed by non-Federal partners. This paper includes a statement of the problem, described in greater detail in the companion paper, Navigation Plan Formulation Aspects, a description of each of the existing container terminals in the Port, descriptions of planned developments at the time of the study by the non-Federal sponsors. An attempt was made to quantify each terminal's importance - by strategic location to deep water and/or a sufficient infrastructure system, by size, and by adjacent land available for future expansion.

The Port of New York and New Jersey presently handles more than 13 million metric tons of cargo in 1.3 million containers. This cargo arrives at the Port using federal channels with authorized depths of 30 to 45 ft. The existing world fleet of cargo ships is changing to larger, deeper draft vessels which require 50 ft or deeper water if they are to enter the Port fully loaded. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers New York District conducted the New York and New Jersey Harbor Navigation Study (see Shea et al. this volume). The purpose of the study was to identify, screen, evaluate and recommend a plan for channel improvements throughout the Port, including deepening, widening and realignment. The study considered the Ambrose, Anchorage, Bay Ridge, Red Hook, Buttermilk, the Kill Van Kull, Claremont, Port Jersey, Newark Bay and the Arthur Kill to Gulfport as well as the anchorages at Stapleton, Red Hook Flats and Gravesend Bay. The plan that was recommended at the end of the study provides for navigation improvements to nine channels, which will permit access by larger, deeper-draft vessels to four container terminals.

This paper summarizes the application of a three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamics and water quality model for New York and New Jersey Harbor. The modeling task was performed as part of the Harbor Navigation Study (HNS) and Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the Port of New York and New Jersey. The study is a comprehensive examination of the need for navigation improvements within the Port of New York and New Jersey. These improvements, which include deepening of existing channels, are designed to facilitate an economically efficient and environmentally sound port for current and future requirements. The HNS/EIS identifies a recommend plan for improvements to navigation channels in the Port of New York and New Jersey Harbor. The purpose of the 3D modeling effort summarized in this paper was to examine the impacts of channel improvements/deepening on hydrodynamics (tidal elevations, temperature and salinity) and water quality (dissolved oxygen and other parameters) in New York Harbor and its environs.

Risk is present in all human activity and its magnitude is a function of the probability of an event and the severity of its consequences. Incidents not only can adversely impact on the marine terminal operator's business and financial standing but can also affect the continued public acceptance and support for the port's operation. Risk assessment methodology provides a decision-making basis and essential information that can be used to reduce the probability of incidents occurring or mitigate their consequences. This paper provides an overview of a risk methodology approach as applied to marine terminals using the "risk matrix".

Incidents on the western rivers involving permanently moored vessels and waterfront structures prompted a comprehensive review of similar incidents. This review concluded that the location of a structure on a waterway was a key variable in the majority of the incidents analyzed. This paper describes a Memorandum of Agreement establishing a formal process for the U.S. Coast Guard to provide input to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' review of Section 10 permit applications. It also describes the risk assessment models used by the U.S. Coast Guard when evaluating permit applications as well as some of the considerations that are considered when developing recommendations that will be made to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

The economies in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) transformed from planned to those based on the free market following major changes in CEE countries in the late 1980-ies and early 1990-ies. As a consequence, many developments are taking place in the transportation sector and ten major transport corridors were identified to enhance the region's economic development and to strengthen ties and integration with Western Europe. The Danube River has been designated as Corridor VII. It is directly connected to the main Western European IWT artery, the River Rhine via the Main — Danube Canal which was opened in 1992.

The ASCE Ports and Harbors Committee has embarked upon the development of a pavement design guide tailored for the intensive loading conditions encountered in container terminals and intermodal yards. The guide is intended to provide a comprehensive reference of alternative design procedures and material options available to the engineer undertaking the design of the pavements for such a facility. This paper will present a synopsis of the design guide, including the rational for the application of existing tools available to the user. The paper will include a description of the sections in the guide. These include container handling equipment and operations, flexible pavement design, rigid pavement design and subgrade improvement. The section on container handling equipment and terminal operations will discuss the various types of equipment and their mode of operation, including the development of the design wheel load and determination of the design repetitions. It will clarify the position that the maximum wheel load is rarely appropriate for design, as it hardly ever occurs in practice. The section on flexible pavements will describe the use of layered elastic design methods and provide a description of potential materials and their properties. The rigid pavement section will be similar, but considers finite element design techniques. Both of these sections will include details of the response of the materials to the imposed loadings and other operational factors. In addition to providing default values for the elastic properties of materials, guidance will be given for more project specific determination. The final section on subgrade improvement will describe shallow modification of subgrade and fill materials for use in the lower layers of the pavement structure, and describe deep-seated improvement as it affects the performance of the pavements.

Pavement systems for seaports are often designed using the highway standards and specifications most familiar to engineers. At the Port of Tampa, the Florida Department of Transportation Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction were typically referenced in the plans and specifications for cargo yard pavement systems. Although these standards may be suitable for highway design, seaport pavements require more rigorous design methods and construction details because of the of the heavy loads that are transported and stored. Other methods used for seaport pavement design include the use of design charts and techniques developed in foreign countries or for applications like airports. This paper describes alternative design methods including the use of finite difference modeling. The results of field plate load tests used to confirm the pavement system design are also presented. The results of the modeling, testing and analyses were used to develop a pavement system standard design and minimum construction specifications for container and cargo yards at the Port of Tampa.

This paper presents the design methodology, construction procedures and results of a full-scale load test on a pavement system for a container handling facility at Port Canaveral, Florida. The facility was constructed in an area that was created by raising under-water land with dredged materials that are expected to undergo differential compression under the anticipated high wheel loads from container handling equipment. To minimize the effects of differential settlement of the subgrade and lateral spreading of base course material, such as cracking, rutting and loss of serviceability, the pavement system was designed to consist of interlocking concrete pavers installed above a crushed granite base course reinforced with a layer of biaxial geogrid. The depth of the geogrid reinforcement layer within the base course for optimum performance of the pavement was determined by load-testing a pavement test strip. The test strip was constructed with the geogrid layer placed at different depths in three different sections, and the pavement was instrumented with stress cells and strain meters. Load-testing was conducted under both natural weather and simulated wet weather conditions using a loaded vehicle with wheel loads and tire pressures similar to those anticipated for the container handling facility. The relative performance of the three sections of the pavement test strip was monitored by continuously recording the stress cell and strain meter readings, and by measuring pavement surface settlements. Based on the results of the load test, the full-scale pavement was constructed with the geogrid reinforcement placed at a depth of 0.15 m below the top of the 0.46 m thick base course.

As part of the overall master plan scope of work for the Barbours Cut Terminal (BCT) requested by the Port of Houston Authority (PHA) a pavement study was conducted. The paper will present the destructive and non destructive investigation testing performed, the analysis and design methodology for each pavement type and operational area, evaluation of pavement distress causes for each type of pavement, selection of pavement section for each operational area and life cycle analysis. The investigation included destructive and non-destructive testing to evaluate the residual properties of existing pavement. Visual inspections were used to establish the extent of pavement distress. Review of construction drawings and thirty 4-inch cores were used to establish existing pavement thickness. Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) testing was conducted in Terminals 1 through 5, the Ro/Ro Terminal and along the wharf. The FWD results were analyzed to determine structural properties of the pavement material.

The continuing increase in world trade and the required extension and rehabilitation of port terminals to equip them for the 21st Century necessitates pavement systems that are cost effective and durable, but that can allow the pavement to be used for different purposes as needs change. They should also be quick to construct so as to speed project delivery. Traditional surfaces have included asphalt concrete and portland cement concrete, but over the past decade a new surfacing material has seen a dramatic increase in its use. This surface is interlocking concrete pavers (ICPs). This paper looks in detail at the role of construction costs and more importantly the automated high tech installation processes of the interlocking concrete pavers. It also discusses life cycle cost analysis of various interlocking concrete paver systems. The findings are based on new research and practical experience gained from recent and ongoing North American projects such as the Port of Oakland, CA, the Port of Baltimore, MD, the Port of New Orleans, LA, the Port of Tampa, FL and reflecting the global focus of the conference, some experience at European ports (Aarhus in Denmark, Amsterdam in Holland, Felixstowe in England), at Asian ports (Singapore and Laem Chabang Port in Thailand), at ports in the Middle East (PSA Aden in Yemen and Jeddah in Saudi Arabia) and also the Port of Rio Grande in Brazil.

Ports represent the coalescence of regional and international economies. The port serves as a transfer point for goods, services and passengers destined for the region as well as for transiting through the region. The movement of passengers and freight is influenced by location factors and logistical decisions that have substantially different timing than that associated with port infrastructure investments. The port is also shaped by national and international policies for trade and investment. These policies that influence the port also exist for the users and operators of the port itself. The decisions implemented by the port owners, operators and users have a pronounced effect upon various constituencies within the region. The paper undertaken by the authors examines the port as an element of the regional transportation system. The long term capital investment in a port is viewed in relation to the interconnecting transportation systems and the logistical decisions that lead to the port use for transferring passengers and freight. The paper has been structured along the following outline.

The Port of Kingston, Jamaica has enjoyed a dramatic period of growth in the past ten years due to its strategic location and the rise of transshipment traffic. This has led to a period of congestion at both of the existing terminals (the North Terminal and Gordon Cay) and a need to expand the Port to meet future needs. The major issues that were considered by the Port were What is the projected capacity of the existing and planned wharf configurations and what backland area will be required to support these wharves? What is the best land configuration to take advantage of the two existing terminals and enable them to grow in a logical, efficient manner and What are the main factors that affect terminal productivity now and what elements of future plans are likely to impact productivity? This paper will discuss how simulation modeling was combined with an extensive planning effort to provide a comprehensive short and long-term plan for the future Port of Kingston.

The port of Mejillones, near Antofagasta in the northern part of Chile, is being developed by Complejo Portuario Mejillones [CPM]. The initial throughput of the new port will consist of copper, containers and general cargo. Future expansions and the provision for other commodities are foreseen in the following phases of the port master plan. An alternative design was developed for the Chilean port operator SAAM (a subsidiary of CSAV). The future port location in the Bay of Mejillones is sheltered to the south-west but open to the Pacific Ocean in north-east direction. As quite some uncertainty existed in the design wave height, a port layout was designed which would not be vulnerable to this uncertainty. After analysis of the future cargo flows it was decided to make a layout with a phased approach. Initially two berths would be constructed and at a later phase additional berths could be constructed. The tender was submitted by SAAM in July 1999.

The Port of New York and New Jersey is developing its opportunities to expand and to meet this increasing demand for global cargo movement. The Port is the primary link in the worldwide transportation chain bringing cargo to and from the Northeast region of the United States and Eastern Canada. Economic forecasts show that the amount of container cargo entering the region could double by 2010 and quadruple by 2040. The Port is currently planning and investing in substantial infrastructure improvements including channel deepening, terminal improvements, and enhanced intermodal connections. These efforts have been endorsed by the United States Congress authorizing an investment of over $2 billion for deep-draft channel construction. Connection to the land side infrastructure is estimated to cost $5 to 7 billion for terminal reconfiguration and expansion with enhanced intermodal connections to integrate with the navigation improvements. In addition, a comprehensive port improvement plan and accompanying environmental impact study are being prepared to help guide the investments for the development of connections to the national freight transportation system.

This paper outlines the creation of the Port of Oakland's Vision 2000 Development Program. It will focus on the genesis of the Program, how the former Navy base and adjacent railyard were closed and transferred, how the designers where selected and how the program was managed to accomplish the goal. A series of other papers in these proceedings explain the details of the fast track environmental review processes, innovative geotechnical design, terminal layouts and wharf design. The Program encompasses the redevelopment of the former United States Navy's 214 hectares (ha) Fleet Industrial Supply Center Oakland (FISCO), and the adjacent 44.5 ha Union Pacific Railroad's (UPRR) rail facility on the Oakland Inner Harbor Channel (IHC), into a modern marine terminal complex. The complex will consist of 1830 meters (m) of wharf, (37.2 m wide, with a 6.1 m wide service lane waterside of the crane rail) designed for 30.5 m gage container cranes. The design cranes are super post-panamax with a 22+1 box outreach. The remainder of the facility consists of 109.4 ha for container yards, 69 ha for a near dock intermodal rail terminal, a tugboat facility, associated roadways and a 15 ha public shoreline access park.

The Port of Oakland design team used an integrated "planning and analysis" approach to define the numerous issues for implementing its Vision 2000 Program. Once these issues were accurately defined and understood, the team developed design criteria to address the complex issues in a comprehensive manner. Master planning documents were created to solidify the overall project concept and to act as design guides for the various teams performing the detailed design tasks. The overall characteristics of the planning program are presented here in a series of drawings, diagrams, and photos involving: site conditions; existing building demolition and facility occupation schedules; major project components, planning elements and factors. The detailed design for the Berth 55/56 Terminal represents the culmination of the planning process. Some examples provided are: an overview of the Berth-55/56 Terminal configuration, Port-specific requirements, tenant-specific requirements, and details of how these requirements were integrated to achieve the design goals.

In 1999, 8.2 million twenty-foot-equivalent units (TEUS) of containerized cargo moved through the Ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles. The Ports of Long Beach/Los Angeles are ranked third in the entire world in terms of containerized cargo, and are ranked first in the United States. This existing throughput is expected to triple in the next twenty years. To adequately address this continued robust growth in international trade and corresponding cargo throughput, the Ports have jointly prepared a Transportation Master Plan (TMP). The TMP is the first comprehensive, areawide analysis of the Ports since the early 1980s, and the first study that included an integrated, intermodal logistics analysis. In addition to logistics, the disciplines of transportation planning, traffic engineering, and civil engineering have being employed in the TMP. The TMP includes detailed analyses within and immediately adjacent to the Port area, and a regional transportation system access analysis.

Near Manappad, located at the southern tip of India in the state of Tamil Nadu, Indian Gas Ltd. is planning the construction of a power plant, powered by LNG. The LNG will be imported through a new port. The objective of the project carried out by Frederic R. Harris was to develop an optimized layout for the LNG port and associated marine facilities. The approach selected for the Manappad project was to evaluate alternative layouts on the basis of operational downtime, defined as the total time that LNG vessels are unable to enter port or transfer cargo due to marine and weather conditions. A balance must be found between the benefits of low downtime and the associated costs. Although this balance could only be determined by the client, the project aimed to provide some tools to find this balance. This was achieved by defining a number of layouts, each providing a different level of protection with different requirements for associated capital investments. Downtime for each layout was determined, so that the client could make the trade-off between service level and costs.

Gaming is bringing new revenues to tired and abandoned waterfronts and is serving as a catalyst for the regeneration of coastal communities. As an ultimate evolution of the gaming business into a self contained fantasy world, a new "port facility" is being designed in the Mississippi Sound, on the coast of Biloxi, Mississippi, to berth casino barges. As an unconventional port concept, the facility is being designed to cluster six large floating casinos into a single dedicated waterfront setting. The economic and environmental goal of clustering the casinos together is to consolidate infrastructure, leverage the synergy of the activity, and eliminate the sprawl and impact of linear development along the coastline. The port facility will be constructed on newly filled land that projects seaward from an existing made-made peninsula. The filled area will be crescent-shaped creating a protected inner lagoon that will berth the floating casinos and a small craft harbor with 400 boat slips. The facility supports land-based amenities that include hotels, parking, commercial/retail areas, entertainment, and public spaces. This paper discusses the planning and design of the facility that must handle 20,000 patrons a day in a setting that is both environmentally sensitive and hurricane-prone.

The past decade in New York City has seen a revival of waterfront rehabilitation, as many abandoned industrial waterfront sites are remediated and developed as open public recreation areas, with a focus on providing water related recreational access for the neighboring communities. The waterfront rehabilitation and development of the $72 million Minor League Yankees Ballpark at the St. George Station waterfront site located on Staten Island, NY, and the $400 million Hudson River Park along Manhattan's West Side, are ongoing examples of this trend in waterfront rehabilitation. This paper describes the recreational development and waterfront rehabilitation associated with the construction of the Minor League Yankees Ballpark. The New York City Economic Development Corporation (NYCEDC) retained the services of Han-Padron Associates, LLP (HPA) as the Marine Consultant responsible for the engineering and design of the new Shore Protection, Waterfront Esplanade and two adjacent Promenade structures.

Vancouver Wharves Ltd. (VWL) is a five berth bulk and break bulk terminal located at the entrance to Vancouver Harbour in Burrard Inlet on Canada's West Coast. From 1997 to 1999 Westmar Consultants Inc. assisted VWL with a major redevelopment of the Terminal to provide new rail and unloading facilities and to consolidate the sulphur storage to a single stockpile. The space made available by the sulphur stockpile consolidation allowed for the addition of a new agri-products system. The VWL site was constructed in the 1960's by filling the intertidal foreshore with coarse dredged material. The fill thickness varied up to 13 metres at the offshore slope. The site is in an area of high seismicity and as a result the fill and underlying sediments are subject to liquefaction.

With the closure of the of two Naval facilities in southern Rhode Island the State Economic Development Corporation (RIEDC) had proposed the development of a new port project to stimulate economic growth and provide job opportunities in the region. RIEDC conducted a number of planning efforts to evaluate the best cargo types for the port and then selected a port developer to carry the project forward using private financing. The agreement with the developer provided for a series of milestones that had to be met as part of the contract process. The first major hurdle was to develop a Port Development Plan that would discuss financing, cargo opportunities, and alternative designs for the port. As part of the Port Development Plan, the developer agreed to participate in a public stakeholders process that would incorporate the input of the many divergent interests in the State. The Governor appointed 69 members to the Stakeholders Group, including the regulatory agencies that would oversee the permitting of the project. The developer was asked to work with the group to reach a consensus on what should be build at the port.

Facility maintenance is a major concern facing the United States port industry today. At a time when discussion of the global economy, trade status and the balance of payments dominates the headlines, ports have become strategic economic assets. America's ports serve as the gateway for exports and imports of autos, electronics, machinery, clothing, coffee, cocoa, rubber, oil, minerals, and a thousand other commodities vital to the economics of nations around the world. Recent trends point to a sustained growth in the tonnage of cargo moved through ports worldwide. The demands on the infrastructure of our ports have never been greater. Development of port infrastructure, and the acquisition and operation of the attendant heavy material handling equipment, is a capital-intensive business. Marine terminal facilities may be state owned and run, leased to large terminal management firms, or owned and operated by private industry. Regardless of the form of ownership and operation, all terminal owners and operators face a shortage of capital to underwrite the necessary expansions of new facilities and the proper maintenance and upkeep of existing assets. The problem is compounded by the continued introduction of newer and larger container ships with heretofore unheard of capacities and size. The latest container cargo ships now exceed 7000 TEU (twenty-foot equivalent unit containers). These ships affect every part of port operations and require that port operators expand, rehabilitate and improve their facilities in order to stay competitive in the world market.

Maintenance management systems for infrastructure assets have developed step-by-step from simple paper files with the essential inventory data to comprehensive database systems used for registering condition data, managing maintenance works, budgeting, optimisation of the use of limited funds. At the same time the use of the systems has spread from a few specialists to all internal and external bodies involved in the operation and maintenance of structures. Therefore the availability of updated information for all users is becoming ever more important. The 100% web-based management system POMS introduced by RAMBØLL for the management of ports solve the availability problem by keeping all programs and data on a central server and using the Internet and standard web browsers to access data.

The Prosim simulation model is capable of conducting simulation of a wide variety of logistic processes. Application of the model is especially powerful when a large number of parallel and interrelated parameters is concerned. Typical applications include port and terminal operations, ranging from nautical issues to berth occupancy planning and sizing of port facilities. Similarly, simulations of cargo flows, product deliveries and onward transportation options can permit sizing and layout planning for on-land facilities. The Prosim model consists of a description of all relevant variables, and the way they are interrelated with other variables inside or outside the model. Input required for the model can be separated in two groups, physical parameters and process description. Physical input parameters define the physical characteristics of the simulated process, and can be fixed, variable or randomly generated. Process descriptions define the behavior of the system, often consisting of logistic decisions or checks that must be made.

For more than two decades, the US Army Corps of Engineers has used simulation models to evaluate the efficiency of lock operations and navigational efficiency in inland navigation systems. The models and the underlying methodology have benefited from a high degree of academic and professional involvement in their development and application, and thus have gained a high degree of academic and professional acceptances. In 1998, the Corps adapted this methodology to simulate the interaction of vessels inside harbors as these vessels compete for the use of one-way traffic areas, berthing areas, and turning basins. The resulting model accounts for randomness in arrival patterns; time-of-day, day-of-week, and other seasonal arrival peaks; loading/unloading times; the need for tug assistance; transit speeds by reach; and a wide array of other operational conditions. The model uses estimates of the hourly cost of operating vessels and projections of future commodity traffic and vessel fleets to evaluate port development strategies on the basis of total in-harbor operating costs. In addition to total operating time and cost, other model outputs include detailed analyses of the components of these costs, and an animation feature that allows visual confirmation and explanation of the model's operation.

Washington State Ferries, one of the largest passenger and vehicle ferry systems in North America, is implementing life cycle-based analysis to identify and prioritize capital funding needs for vessels and terminals. Aging terminal structures represent a significant underfunded liability for the Ferry System. Life cycle analysis of these structures will help prioritize funding requirements and focus limited resources to most effectively reduce this liability. This paper addresses the application of life cycle analysis to preservation of existing ferry terminals. It describes the reasons for implementation and an overview of the method of analysis. The following is presented: 1 A brief history of Washington State Ferries, including a discussion of modernization efforts and the current condition status of terminal structures; 2 Reasons for implementation of life cycle analysis; 3 The life cycle methodology—age and condition of structures; 4 The role of life cycle analysis in the capital planning process; 5 Performance measures for predicting the effectiveness of funding proposals and reporting the results of completed programs.

The vulnerability of port waterfront structures to seismic ground motions of moderate intensity has been demonstrated during numerous recent earthquakes around the world. In most instances the damage to quay walls is manifested as limited deformations, as opposed to catastrophic failures or the collapse of structures. Although these permanent deformations are often repairable, the economic losses sustained by the ports due to business interruption during repair and reconstruction is commonly viewed as unacceptable by many port authorities. In light of the economic risk associated with limited earthquake-induced deformations of waterfront structures the development and application of seismic performance criteria is becoming routine in the design process for ports in regions of low- to moderate-seismicity. This paper addresses the seismic design of quay walls for a proposed major terminal in such a region, with an emphasis on performance-based design concepts and the construction costs associated with specific quay configurations and requisite soil improvement for mitigation of seismic hazards. The primary factors contributing to the selection of proposed waterfront structures for the final design phase of the project included: (1) the allowable deformation limits of the quay walls structures established by the design team in consultation with the port authority; (2) the cost associated with construction of the specific wharf alternative and soil treatment satisfying the seismic performance criteria; (3) the anticipated seismic performance of the proposed waterfront structures and ancillary components; (4) coastal engineering considerations such as wave characteristics in the harbor and ship motion; and (5) design-life considerations. The structural and construction factors have been optimized from a cost-benefit standpoint in a manner that satisfies the seismic performance criteria for the terminal.

This paper presents results of a study conducted during the Seismic Risk Evaluation Phase of the Port of Oakland's Wharf and Embankment Strengthening Program (WESP). It estimates the response of existing piles with missing pile-driving records, to lateral load. The Pile Integrity Test (PIT) was used to determine pile tip elevations at the relevant berths, and a parametric study was conducted to determine sensitivity of the soil/pile/structure system's performance to variations in pile length, soil and other parameters.

Pier 56 is a classic 95-year old, 137-meter (450-foot) long by 46-meter (150-foot) wide timber pier on the waterfront in downtown Seattle, Washington. A 107-meter (350-foot) long by 30.5-meter (100-foot)wide building housing a restaurant and future office space sits on top of the pier. This paper discusses meeting the challenge of cost-effectively extending the life of the decaying timber pier, while minimizing the impact of construction on the businesses on top of the pier and to the endangered species in the water below.

This paper addresses the seismic design of a container wharf more than 2130m (7000 ft) long supporting 30.48m (100 ft) gage cranes. The wharf, a reinforced concrete deck on prestressed vertical concrete piles, provides 16m (53 ft) water depth for 6600 TEU vessels. The performance based design uses following limit states: a lower level earthquake (OLE) with a 72 year average return period (peak ground acceleration 0.28g), no interruption of operations after the event is permitted; and an upper lever earthquake (CLE) with a 475 year average return period (peak ground acceleration 0.52g), requiring the structural damage to be repairable. The dike analysis indicates in excess of 0.9m (3.0 ft) deformation at the dike crest for the CLE event without reinforcing effects of the piles, therefore soil-structure interaction analysis was necessary. The results show that the pile moment curvature still meets the limit state strain conditions. Elastic modal analyses were performed to evaluate different computer procedures and wharf geometry. Increasing the clear space between wharf deck and dike crest has the surprising result that pile ductility improves and shear demand on the pile decreases. Inelastic time-history analyses then were performed to evaluate the influence of different soil spring stiffness in the up-slope and down-slope direction and passive pressure on the rear edge of the wharf. Other studies investigate crane-wharf interaction (crane mass is out of phase with the wharf and can be neglected) and the dynamic response of linked wharf units (displacement values for pure transverse response must be amplified by approximately 15% to account for a combination of transverse and longitudinal seismic excitation). Several important detail issues are investigated, such as the dowel development length and detailing of the pile deck connection, use of additional mild steel in prestressed concrete piles, pile shear capacity and others.

Recent earthquakes have highlighted many seismic hazard concerns for ports worldwide. Waterfront structures at ports are commonly constructed utilizing pile-supported wharves in combination with rock dike structures retaining a hydraulically placed backfill. Seismic damage has generally been attributed to weak soils that are often prevalent in the marine environment (e.g. liquefiable sands, sensitive cohesive soils) and/or insufficient ductility of pile-wharf deck connections. The design of a seismically resilient wharf requires an understanding of its performance during design level earthquakes. Due to the complex nature of pile-supported wharves, state-of-the-art centrifuge modeling techniques are being used to better understand their seismic performance. The performance of pile-supported wharves in carefully controlled, large-scale centrifuge tests is being monitored through the extensive use of instrumentation. The results of the centrifuge tests are: 1) being compared to the results from standard-of-practice methods of design, and 2) being used to validate the use of sophisticated numerical programs for the modeling of seismic soil-structure interaction. This paper summarizes aspects of the construction, instrumentation, and testing of the models. Results on the seismic performance of a model is also presented, as well as the results of a comparison between the measured centrifuge seismic performance, and the seismic performance estimated using a standard-of-practice design method.

At the heart of San Francisco's historic waterfront, Pier 1 was substantially rebuilt and refurbished. Built as a warehouse during an era of expansion and renovation along the San Francisco waterfront, and now listed on the National Register of Historic Places, Pier 1 is a remarkable example of characteristic San Francisco waterfront architecture and pier waterfront construction. The project required a seismic retrofit of the structure. This paper presents the renovation strategy which preserved much of Pier 1's industrial character through the careful insertion of steel-framed mezzanines, and the non-intrusive addition of large diameter steel piles into the deck structure to resist seismic loads.

This paper presents the results of a detailed study of the batter pile-wharf deck connection at the Port of Oakland under their Wharf and Embankment Strengthening Program (WESP). It provides insight into the failure mechanisms of the designs studied and an evaluation of their reliability.

The Port of Oakland is in the process of upgrading a number of existing berths to meet the increasing draft requirements of current and future container shipping vessels. This is called the Wharf and Embankment Strengthening Program (WESP) and includes crane beam strengthening and a seismic evaluation of the existing wharf and embankment systems to ensure that the deepened wharf structure is at least as strong seismically as the existing structure. This paper concentrates on the seismic design issues using Performance Based Design for Berths 35 – 37, which were constructed in the early 1970s and repaired following substantial damage caused by the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. Performance Based Design has developed significantly in its application to marine structures in the last 20 years. The original design performed poorly under seismic loads. The repair approach used many aspects of technology improvements developed in the 1980s, but the design followed typical building code requirements that have since been improved upon for marine structures, as generally discussed in the 1998 publication by ASCE entitled Seismic Guidelines for Ports. The resulting facility is more capable than it was originally, both in its functional use and its design strength. The owner has increased confidence in its future performance and longevity, the shippers have capability to handle the largest vessels using larger cranes, and the regulatory agencies have a clear understanding of its adherence to code requirements and safety.

In this paper, part of an ongoing comprehensive research effort to develop wood-plastic composite lumber for use as an alternative to preservative-treated wood in fender systems is described. The overall objectives were to evaluate material and structural demands on members composed of the new material, to establish appropriate design criteria, and to verify component performance. Procedures for structural modeling, for component testing, and the resulting formulation of design equations are presented.

Underwater deterioration of concrete piles has occurred for many years however, recently piles have been observed at sites with various types of deterioration, including complete loss of concrete section, surface cracking extending from the mud line to MLLW and piles with extensive surface softening. These types of deterioration seem to be more common as manufacturing and construction processes have changed. The cause of the deterioration has typically not been diagnosed, thereby leading to inappropriate repair selection. This article will discuss six facilities tested and for each facility include the field condition of the piles; the sampling program for the facility; testing, including petrographic examination, scanning electron microscopy and differential thermal analysis and conclusions.

Port engineers and their consultants are often called upon to conduct rehabilitations of existing facilities which may date back many decades. In many cases, construction documents for these facilities have long since disappeared, which obviously complicates such rehabilitations. Furthermore, construction practices, typical material properties and design methodologies have changed over the years. Knowledge of these factors, and consideration of their effects are important if the most effective and cost efficient decisions are to be made regarding structure rehabilitation. Physical investigations and material testing generally remain necessary, but their use is optimized by proper consideration of the existing construction. In addition, this knowledge gives a reasonable set of values against which to judge materials test values, and a basis for evaluating the use of newer technologies, such as fiber reinforced composites, for strengthening.

The Corpus Christi tidewater flood protection system (system) was constructed during the years 1939 to 1942. A study has been performed to assess the ability of the 3/(1/2) mile system to provide continued hurricane and tidewater flood protection for the City. The system is composed of a pile-supported concrete seawall, concrete and steel sheet pile bulkhead walls, ship docks, and an earthen levee with timber stoplog closure structures. The study implemented a comprehensive testing program including ground penetrating radar and infrared hermography; exploratory excavations; in-situ dynamic pile testing; concrete emolition, compressive strength and petrographic/chloride testing; half-cell corrosion analyses; and underwater inspections. The results of the esting, combined with wave force calculations and structural analyses, were used to determine deficiencies in the seawall and develop restoration and structural enhancing methods of repair.

Manzanillo International Terminals (MIT), located on the Caribbean side of Panama, is the fastest growing container terminal in the Americas. The terminal, which opened for business in April 1994, is now handling more than 800,000 TEUs per year. The first phase consisting of 600 meters of container wharf and 20 hectares of paving was completed in late 1995. Shortly thereafter, MIT realized that the business growth could exceed the original projections of 400,000 TEUs per year by 1998, and began planning for expansion of the terminal. The expansion added new berths and container yard in the Phase I dredge spoil area to the south. The highly compressible silts and clays present at the site provided unique engineering challenges. A 625-meter, pile-supported wharf was constructed in two phases while the 16-hectare container yard behind it was being consolidated using a wick drain/surcharge program. The wharf framing consists of high-capacity concrete piles, precast concrete crane beams, cast-in-place transverse pile caps, and precast concrete deck with composite topping. The lateral load resisting system consists of steel pipe piles together with a steel sheet pile bulkhead and rock anchors. The wharf was designed for post-Panamax container crane loading. Concrete block paving (CBP) for the heavy-duty container yard was designed for rubber tired gantry (RTG) and container top pick loading. A unique and simple drainage system was constructed for the yard to collect and dispose of the high-intensity rainfall common in the region. The paper describes the unique features of the terminal expansion, such as reclamation, ground improvement techniques, fast-track construction, all-precast framing system and concrete block paving that were successfully implemented in the Republic of Panama for the first time.

This paper discusses the procurement of a bulk handling terminal at Bristol in the United Kingdom. The project was complex. It involved the procurement and commissioning of materials handling plant and equipment and extensive civil and marine works. The overall project value was £110 million, of which some £70 million was in the main terminal contract. A design and build procurement route was selected, giving the potential for fast-track construction techniques and innovative contractor-led design. Because of the tight programme, an accelerated procedure was developed to enable the contract to be let in minimal time. The works, including environmental enhancements not part of the original scheme, were completed within a construction period of 22 months. The success of the project is considered to be largely due to the programme advantage derived from the design and build form of contract and proactive project management.

The new MIDTAP Petroleum Products Loading Facilities, located on a "greenfield" site on the Mediterranean coast at the Port of El-Dekheila in Alexandria, Egypt, will handle both the liquid bulk and dry bulk products produced by the new MIDOR refinery located some 20 km away. These products include gasolines (regular and premium), diesel, jet fuel and petroleum coke. This presentation describes the facility and its operations and discusses the planning process and project delivery methods used to execute the project.

The proposed 12 Million Ton Per Year (MTPY) Dhamra-Chand-bali Bulk Terminal, in Orissa, India is slated for development by International Seaports Pre. Limited (ISPL). The terminal was designed to handle a complex mix of the following dry- bulk cargo: Coking Coal Imports, Thermal Coal Experts, and Iron Ore Exports. The transportation system for cargo movement under the control of the terminal operator included, (1) A 17 km Navigation Channel, (2) A high volume Dry Bulk Import/Export Terminal and, (3) A 61 km Single-line Rail Link. The 12 Million Tons throughput would consist of a cargo mix for five different shippers. Over 200 vessels and almost 3,000 Indian Railways rakes (unit trains) would be required to move the 12 Million Tons of cargo each year.

A recent report by shipping consultants forecast a 65% increase in global container traffic up to 2005. It went on to suggest that, to accommodate this growth, investment of some US$20 to US$30 billion would be required in civil work and equipment. This paper looks at the need for new and upgraded container terminals world-wide, and the factors contributing to this need. Planning considerations for new and upgraded terminals are many and varied; the paper looks at aspects including site evaluation, project development issues, and the many varied elements of port planning. Detailed design of the container terminal will not be the same at any two terminals because of variations in ground conditions, and the constraints imposed by existing developments and the local environment. In looking at design considerations, the paper addresses some of the implications, including: alternative forms of quay structure, alternative types of pavement, durability considerations, and utility requirements. In discussing the planning and design aspects of terminals, the author draw on the practical experience gained from recent projects world-wide, including terminals in the Far East, the Middle East, Europe, the Caribbean and Central America.

The Port of Long Beach will construct six mega container terminals during the coming decade to respond to a forecast of doubling in international trade. The effort will expand the Port's container acreage area by 900 acres and combine existing areas to create terminals over 300 acres in size. This paper outlines the different terminals and the steps to be taken by Port staff to build new and expanded facilities. When completed, the projects are expected to cost approximately $2 billion. This effort is in addition to other ongoing capital improvements the Port will be undertaking during the decade to modernize and continue to lead the nation in container traffic.

This paper describes some of the construction processes involved in the conversion of 538 acres of the former Oakland Naval Supply Center to the Port of Oakland's Vision 2000 Program. The program includes two container terminals, a six-lane access road, a rail to truck intermodal terminal and a 35 acre shoreline park. In addition to the expected challenges this project had the added restrictions of several regulatory agencies, heavy rains during earthwork operations, and the excavation, stockpiling, testing and reuse placement of 540,000 cubic yards of excavated soil. The paper describes other construction issues of the program, including the lime and cement treatment of clay subbase and creation and reuse of 600,000 tons of crushed concrete aggregate base material from demolished buildings and roads.

The Pier T Marine Terminal is a new 375-acre (151.8 ha) container terminal being developed on the site of the former Long Beach Naval Complex. The Naval Complex was closed by the Navy in 1995 and turned over to the Long Beach Harbor Department for development. To meet the aggressive schedule for the development, a phased program for design and construction of the terminal was developed that allowed demolition, filling and generic site improvements to proceed in advance of a lease agreement with a tenant and while planning and design of the tenant-related improvements was accomplished. A program was developed that included 18 construction contracts totaling over $325 million, excluding cranes and equipment. This paper discusses the planning, design and construction aspects of the project.

In January 1998, the Port of Los Angeles (POLA) embarked on an aggressive marketing campaign to obtain a customer for a "Mega-Container Terminal" on Pier 400 two years in advance of completion of the future landfill. In October 1999, the POLA and Maersk-SeaLand entered into a Memorandum of Understanding for the delivery of a 484-acre terminal, the largest proprietary container terminal in the world that included 288 acres operational by early 2002 and 196 additional acres by early 2004. On August 24, 2000, the City of Los Angeles approved a 25-year lease with Maersk Pacific, Ltd. What ensued was the implementation of a very aggressive plan including resequencing and completion of the landfill, a comprehensive landfill consolidation program and accelerated design and construction schedules. The plan required a strong partnership with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, its Contractor's and the Maersk-SeaLand team, all of which would enable the Port of Los Angeles to meet its commitment to deliver Pier 400 into a revenue producing facility.

In the era of post-panamax container vessels, ports are increasing their berthing depths to accommodate larger ships. This paper presents the results of geotechnical engineering analyses related to deepening three berths along the Terminal 5 Wharf, in the Port of Seattle, Washington. The Port of Seattle hired KPFF Consulting Engineers and Hart Crowser to investigate deepening of the berths along the pier by as much as 3 meters. The intent of the analyses was to determine what, if any, structural support was necessary to maintain the static and seismic stability of the under pier slope and to prevent increased deflections of the wharf structure in a seismic event. Stability and deformations were analyzed using slope stability and finitie difference analyses. Soldier piles, sheet piles, and "pinch piles" under the wharf to densify the potentially liquefiable soils were modeled in these analyses. Based on the results of these analyses, sheet piles were used for berths being deepened by 3 meters, and a wall of closely spaced soldier piles was installed for areas deepened by 1.5 meters.

Marine oil terminals can pose a major environmental risk and safety hazard if improperly designed and maintained. Despite this risk, there are currently no requirements, regulations or standards anywhere in the United States to define what constitutes proper engineering practice in this area. The California State Lands Commission (SLC) created a Marine Facilities Division in 1990 to oversee the more than 60 marine oil terminals throughout the state. Their mission is to protect the environment and to ensure safe practices. The SLC has been hindered in their efforts to date because there are no engineering standards to enforce. The SLC is correcting these historic inadequacies by developing comprehensive engineering standards with the goal of protecting public health, safety and the environment. The Marine Oil Terminal Engineering and Maintenance Standards define engineering criteria for both existing and new marine oil terminals.

This paper discusses the use of the Open Cell Bulkhead system at several port and harbor sites across the United States. The "Open Cell" is a cellular sheetpile structure with unconnected sheet pile tail walls that act as soil anchors. This system functions as a horizontally tied membrane, relying solely on soil-friction against flat sheet pile anchor walls to restrain an arched sheet pile face. Viewed in plan, the structure is a series of adjoining "U-shaped" structures. Each of these projects demonstrates the advantages of the system during construction. Completed projects have been built by local general contractors with no experience with the Open Cell and some with little or no marine experience. Construction cost, schedule and change order histories indicate that these structures are at least as easy to build as other bulkhead and wharf structures.

This paper describes the unique engineering design and construction features of a US Navy submarine model research facility situated overwater on Lake Pend Oreille, in Bayview Idaho. The design included an insulated prestressed concrete heavy duty pier supporting a 1400 square meter (15,000 sf) structural steel high bay research building with integral 110 MT bridge cranes. A two-span prestressed concrete bridge provided access to the overwater facility. The facility was designed and constructed in metric units. Unique features of the pier design and construction included an integral floor opening in the pier employed to deploy and retrieve scale submarine models with mechanically actuated stressed skin plywood hatch covers, special high strength insulated prestressed concrete deck panels, and precast architectural concrete to improve visual aesthetics. Unique design features of the 4-story high bay structural steel building included special truss moment frames combined with a long span metal roof diaphragm lateral system, stepped building columns supporting 3-span continuous crane girders, and synchronized twin 110 MT bridge cranes utilized for moving large scale model submarines.

A world-class shipyard is being constructed in Bath, Maine. This major facility modernization of the Bath Iron Works is known as the Land Level Transfer Facility, and includes a 6-hectare (15-acre) land level platform for ship assembly, as well as a 230-meter (750-foot) floating dry dock for ship launch and retrieval. The platform structure is comprised of two distinct components: a retained-fill structure and a pile-supported open deck platform. The pile-supported deck has been designed and constructed primarily of precast concrete components, the choice of which has enabled the contractor to adhere to an aggressive schedule despite an equally aggressive environment. The project, a design/build effort between Clark Construction and Moffatt & Nichol Engineers, with BERGER/ABAM Engineers Inc. as an engineering subconsultant, is an excellent example of how the design team can work very closely with the contractor to create precast concrete solutions that are tailored to specific site conditions and schedule requirements. More importantly, these innovative solutions are provided to the contractor while at the same time giving the owner a durable and serviceable design that meets the demanding requirements of the shipbuilding industry as well as the environment.

The forecast growth in the British Columbia and Alaska Cruise industry anticipates that the Port of Vancouver will need to handle over 1,000,000 passengers in 2001 and that more than $500 million will be generated in the local economy. In answer to this opportunity the Port has undertaken two major expansions to its existing cruise ship terminal infrastructure. The recently completed Centerm Improvement Project and the extension to the Canada Place Cruise Ship Terminal, which is presently under construction, incorporate new structures adjacent and integral with older existing structures. The design of the existing structures does not meet the levels of protection required by present seismic codes and they have very different performance characteristics to the new structures. Seismic performance was further complicated by variable site soils that had a high potential to liquefy. Additionally both facilities were required to remain in operation during construction. This paper discusses the design challenges and solutions that were developed in implementing these projects.

The new Pacific Bell Park in San Francisco, home for San Francisco Giants, is the latest Ferry stop on the San Francisco Bay. The ballpark and terminal represent yet another piece of the Port of San Francisco redevelopment. The two berth ferry terminal is fully ADA accessible to a wide range of passenger ferries operating on the bay. Initially, the ferry terminal will operate during Giants home games. Future regular ferry service is planned for the Mission Bay area development of San Francisco. This paper describes the design process. The background of the Pacific Bell Ballpark site is described. The terminal planning process considered numerous alternative facility arrangements. Regulatory agencies played an important part during planning and design. Functional and environmental design criteria for the terminal are discussed and design features of the terminal presented.

The Port of Houston Authority's Barbours Cut Container Terminal has created new terminal area, providing the Port with the opportunity to redevelop existing terminal infrastructure that is up to 20 years old. Design criteria were developed using equipment and operational parameters to define the redevelopment options. A study of terminal cross sections was conducted to evaluate the benefits of the sections with respect to the design criteria and to select a preferred cross section for the terminal redevelopment plan.

Angola is a country rich in offshore hydrocarbon resources. Exploration and exploitation of these resources has demanded the establishment of marine supply bases strategically located along the coast. One of the largest of these is located in the natural harbor of Luanda, the capital. The base began operations using a small area of the commercial port, but soon base operations reached a level, which required expansion of both berthing and onshore areas. This paper looks at background to the need for the construction of the quay and the issues affecting the design of the counterfort units that were used. It also looks at the innovative construction methodology that had to be applied to meet the tight schedule and specifications for the quay wall. It also shows how modern technology and standards can successfully and economically be applied in remote environments, providing the client with a world-class facility.

CH2M HILL developed a comprehensive Project Delivery System (PDS) to implement a standardized process for consistently delivering benchmark project delivery performance. The PDS provides the flexible structure to organize and charter a team of professionals, develop and address a comprehensive set of design issues, manage change, and arrive at a coherent design conclusion that can be effectively implemented. CH2M HILL used its PDS to complete the design of Berths 55/56 as part of the Port of Oakland's Vision 2000 Program. The Vision 2000 Program provides for construction of over $600 million in new port facilities including five container berths, a container yard, and an intermodal rail terminal. This paper describes CH2M HILL's overall PDS, its application to the Berths 55/56 design project, and relevant examples of how the PDS was successfully implemented to maintain quality control and achieve extreme cost and time savings for clients.

This paper discusses unique issues encountered during the design and construction of the Norfolk Deperming Pier, a berth that consists of two parallel, pile-supported piers roughly 345 meters long by 3.05 meters (1,140 by 10 feet) in width, and associated mooring and berthing platforms. The pier is a U.S. Naval facility used to remove the magnetic fields developed during vessel construction and after substantial refit work from U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard surface vessels. The deperming pier was originally constructed in the mid-1940s using timber elements and was programmed for replacement in the early 1990s due to its poor condition.

Berths 57 to 59 will extend Berths 55/56 so that the entire Berths 55 to 59 wharf and yard will increase the size of container handling facilities at the Port of Oakland by more than 120 acres, or 25%. B57-59 extend from the eastern end of B56 in the middle harbor channel, meeting the western tip of B60 3,600 feet away at a fifteen degree angle. In addition to the design of the wharf, this project includes the design of dredging and embankments under the wharf and at the UP Mole west of B55/56. All excavated material will be reused on Port property, either as fill in the container yard or in the area northwest of the wharf designated as the North Cell. The North Cell will later become part of a public beach and park.

This paper discusses the benefits of underwater engineering inspection as a valuable tool for the owners and operators of marine and ferry terminals in conducting design and operation activities. Specific reasoning for the inclusion of underwater inspection activities is discussed, as well as four specific types of underwater inspection: Underwater Pre-design Inspection; Routine Underwater Inspection, Underwater Construction Inspection, and Emergency Underwater Inspection. Discussion of when underwater inspection should be considered and what benefits may be gained along with specific project examples are provided for the four types of underwater inspection presented.

To meet the demands of increased commuter traffic on the inland waters of Puget Sound, the Washington State Ferry System (WSF) has initiated a program of building faster and larger ferry vessels. The most recent addition to the fleet is the Jumbo Mark II class of vessels. The introduction of these larger vessels has required that many ferry terminals be upgraded. BERGER/ABAM Engineers Inc. and WSF studied the challenges of accommodating the larger vessels at the existing terminals. One area of concern was the existing dolphins at the terminals. Generally, the existing dolphins were either timber or steel cluster pile dolphins or floating timber dolphins. These dolphins were not positioned to effectively accommodate the new mix of vessels; and, in many instances, the dolphins' capacity to absorb an accidental impact from the larger vessels was not adequate. Many dolphin concepts were considered for replacing the existing dolphins. The new dolphin had to meet the WSF's requirements for an economical dolphin capable of resisting large impacts and soft and flexible during light impacts for passenger comfort. The dolphin concept selected for use was a flexible steel pile dolphin using buckling rubber fender elements. The dolphin absorbs impact energy primarily through collapse of the rubber fenders and cantilever bending of the plumb reaction piles.

Washington State Ferries (WSF) is the largest ferry operator in North America with service between 20 different terminals, including one on Orcas Island, one of the San Juan Islands. Located between Vancouver Island, Canada and the Washington State mainland, Orcas Island is a community of 4,500 and, as a popular tourist destination, the number of people on the island often doubles. Ferry service through the single slip terminal is the main link for getting onto or off of the island and is considered part of the state highway system. This paper presents the planning, design, and construction of the $3.8 million replacement facilities. All activities were conducted within a very aggressive schedule made possible by a cooperative and simultaneous effort between the designers, the construction managers, the contractor, and the ferry operators. Project features included two phases of temporary vehicle service through the construction zone, new support structures for the transfer span, and new steel wingwalls. One other project feature was an innovative ductile batter pile to cap connection for the transfer span support towers to limit the seismic uplift demand.

As more and more urban waterfronts are being revitalized, engineers and architects are increasingly working together to develop exciting, functional spaces for public access in the challenging waterfront environment. This paper describes the highly challenging West Midtown Intermodal Ferry Terminal Project and illustrates the close collaboration between architect and waterfront engineer that is required to create welcoming and functional public spaces within the constraints of the urban waterfront. Since the capacity of the one and two slip terminal facilities throughout the City has not kept pace with the increasing ferry traffic, the New York City Economic Development Corporation (EDC) is developing a major terminus at Pier 79 on the west side of Manhattan. The new West Midtown Intermodal Ferry Terminal will be a municipallY owned multi-user facility designed to accommodate a range of commuter vessels from short-haul ferries and water taxis to high-speed long distance craft. The new facility will consist of a 2,800 m² Terminal Building and an 11 m wide by 88 m long float with seven ferry slips. The building will have ticketing facilities, passenger waiting areas, a restaurant, concessions, and a control room.

The Port Authority of NY and NJ has been using, cost-effective plastic wraps to encapsulate the timber piles that have section loss caused by marine borers. A monitoring program to determine the effectiveness of the wraps has been implemented. It involves testing for the level of dissolved Oxygen (DO) inside the wrapped piles. Results indicate that an effective pile wrap system can successfully cause the reduction of DO to levels that marine borers cannot survive.

At an oil transfer terminal owned and operated by an international oil company, there is presently a bulkhead, most of which was constructed in 1971, that is approximately 853 m (2,800 ft) long with a design dredge elevation that varies between –11.9 and –6.1 m (–39 and –20 ft) MLWD (Mean Low Water Datum). The bulkhead is made of steel sheet piles secured by bolts to a double-channel, interior wale that is anchored via tie-rods to an upland, buried, steel sheet pile wall. The bulkhead is in fair to good condition after 29 years of service with one exception: the bolts that fasten the sheet piles to the wale (i.e., fixing bolts) are failing due to excessive corrosion. As a result, since 1996, sheet piles in several areas of the bulkhead have separated from the wale and deflected waterward (i.e., localized areas of bulkhead failure are occurring). Each time a failure occurs, it results in costly repairs and significant disruption to terminal operations. More failures are anticipated in the future unless measures are implemented to identify and replace deteriorated fixing bolts. This paper provides detailed coverage of the development, testing and use of an innovative and cost-effective mechanical fastener developed to replace failed fixing bolts without upland disturbance. Use of the new fastener can result in a significant reduction in the time and expense of replacing failed fixing bolts over traditional methods, such as excavating behind the bulkhead. Further, if used as part of a comprehensive maintenance program, the replacement mechanical fastener can prevent costly bulkhead failures and substantially extend the useful life of anchored, steel sheet pile bulkheads with interior wales, a commonly encountered bulkhead configuration.

The graving dock facility is a reinforced concrete structure used to dry dock a variety of small-to-medium size naval ships for repair purposes. After more than fifty years of service life, the structural integrity of the concrete surfaces supporting the vertical sides of the caisson was questioned because of cracking, spalling and general deterioration of the concrete. This paper describes the challenges and methodology used for the field investigations, design issues and construction difficulties successfully addressed during repair of the inner and outer seats.

This paper discusses the replacement of a 40 year old general cargo berth at the North Carolina State Ports Authority in Wilmington, North Carolina. The main focus of the paper is on innovative techniques used by the designer, owner, and contractor to reduce the overall cost of the replacement structure. The final cost of the replacement structure was $43.33 per square foot. The replacement structure consists of an 18 inch thick reinforced two-way flat plate slab supported on both 20 inch square prestressed concrete piles and 18 inch diameter auger cast piles. The project involved the construction of approximately 12,400 square feet of new wharf and the replacement of approximately 145,500 square feet of existing wharf. The new wharf is capable of supporting 1,000 pounds per square foot and container handlers and replaces a wharf capable of supporting 350 pounds per square foot and HS 20 loading. Two different types of construction techniques are discussed; (1) Use of the exiting deck as a template for driving piles and as formwork for the new structure and (2) Use of the existing deck as a template for driving piles and then demolishing the deck and using the new piles to support traveling formwork.

The Halterm Container Terminal is located at the entrance to Halifax Harbour on Nova Scotia's Atlantic Coast. The harbour has a natural depth of about 18 m, and is ice free year round. Halterm is one of the most important container terminals on the Canadian East Coast and total throughput for the 12 month period ending August 2000 exceeded 500,000 TEU. In recent years Halterm has been accepting ever larger container ships and in mid-1999 berthed the Regina Maersk, the world's largest container ship at that time. Various methods of repairing the undermining were considered including the use of bagged concrete and large armour stone, but ultimately it was determined that the best long term solution involved the use of steel sheet pile and underwater (tremie) concrete. Steel sheet pile was selected for two reasons, 1) to retain the tremie concrete used to fill the void under the caisson, and 2) to prevent future undermining of the caisson. In the undermined location there was an insufficient thickness of material above bedrock to provide the lateral resistance necessary to retain the tremie concrete and there was also the possibility that this same material would wash out after the repair was complete. It was therefore deemed necessary to key the bottom of the sheet pile into the bedrock.

The Wharf and Embankment Strengthening Program (WESP) is a structural modification project involving approximately 12,000 linear feet of pile-supported, marginal wharf structures. WESP is necessary because the Port of Oakland plans to deepen its berths from –42' Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) to –52' MLLW, in conjunction with a Federal Government-sponsored channel dredging project. Unless they are structurally reinforced prior to the dredging, the waterfront components (i.e. wharves and embankments) will be weakened by the berth deepening project. WESP is a three-phase program that establishes the existing structural and seismic capacities of waterfront components, develops designs for improvements necessary to maintain these capacities after the berth deepening, and constructs the improvements. WESP also includes consideration of seismic upgrade improvements. The Port is currently completing the first phase of the WESP program. This paper will describe the design criteria, project phasing, construction type of waterfront components, project organization, and results to date for WESP.

As part of Port Canaveral's development of a container feeder terminal, the port authority selected a terminal operator who elected to use mobile harbor cranes to load and unload containers. North Cargo Piers 1, 2, and 3 are the only berths in close proximity to the container yard. However, these cargo piers were designed and constructed in the early 1970's as medium duty general cargo wharves. In order to function as container piers, they would now have to support the proposed large mobile harbor cranes and container handling equipment. This paper will discuss the structural evaluation, the analytical approach used to model the crane axle loads and propping loads, and the hydrodemolition method selected to remove the existing topping. It will also describe the various challenges encountered during construction, which included the requirement that a portion of the berth be open to general cargo operations at all times, and the operator's purchase of a crane that had higher propping and axle loads than the design crane.

In the past five years KPFF Consulting Engineers has designed several intermodal rail yards for container terminals including: Pier T at the Port of Long Beach; Terminal 18 at the Port of Seattle and Terminal 5 at the Port of Seattle. Because every shipper operates differently, every intermodal yard must be designed differently. This paper will describe some of the ways that each of the designs was affected by the operational methods of the terminal tenant, possible future changes in terminal operations, and the opportunities and challenges of each site.

A continual challenge for the owners and operators of busy port facilities is conducting maintenance and repairs while keeping Operational and budget impacts to a minimum. Prior to construction, proper attention to scoping, design and construction phasing can increase the likelihood of a smooth bidding process and construction period. This paper describes the pre-construction scoping and design decisions for the rehabilitation of one of the Port of Tacoma's most important intermodal facilities.

This paper presents the planning, type selection design and construction of the Pier 400 Transportation Corridor Bridge No. 1 (TC Bridge No. 1). The bridge was part of the overall Port of Los Angeles Pier 400 development project. Pier 400 is an approximately 221-hectare (545-acre) landfill that was completed this year. An approximately 2,133.6-meter (7,000') transportation corridor accesses Pier 400. There is a 117.348-meter (385') gap in the transportation corridor that provides circulation between the surrounding basins. This gap must be spanned by bridge structures to permit access.to Pier 400. This paper will focus on the first structure to span the gap, TC Bridge No. 1. TC Bridge No. 1 is a two-lane concrete structure design to carry heavy truck loading.

Waterways are well known as an efficient and reliable transport mode for bulk cargo. To enclose inland waterways in modern logistic chain, an information/communication infrastructure needs to be developed to provide higher safety and an efficient traffic flow leading to better market conditions for inland ship operators in comparison to railway and trucking. Hence, a model of a Waterway Traffic Management System (WTMS) is presented as a telematic application for inland waterways aiming at optimization of traffic and safety of both ship operation and waterway management. For ship operators, WTMS would provide a simulation of estimated times of arrival/departure (ETA/ETD). A positioning system is necessary for assessment of traffic densities which largely influences travel duration and ETA. Ship parameters will also be considered. WTMS integrates constructive, hydraulic and hydrologic conditions of waterways and simulates the voyage to minimize waiting times at locks/in harbors and hence optimizes disposition for ship operator and harbor. For the Waterway Authority, WTMS would serve as information system to optimize personnel, e.g. in locks, and to provide higher safety due to traffic surveillance and exact ship positions. This would reduce accidents and ensure quick and easy access to information to provide best possible help. WTMS consists of a distributed database and is separated into static, dynamic and voyage related data, where dynamic data is defined as changing data, e.g. position, draught, speed and hydraulic data like flow velocities, whereas static data consists of geographic information of waterway and buildings (locks/bridges) and voyage related data (origin/destination port, cargo data).WTMS partly acts as a distributed system as different internet data sources like ELWIS (www.elwis.de) of the Waterway and Shipping Authority providing nautical, hydrological and hydraulic information are used to obtain original and relevant data. Traffic flow optimization on inland waterways improves management and maintenance for the authority as well as operation for skippers and finally helps providing a better economical as well as ecological intelligent multimodal transport solution.

The present navigation channel to Mesaieed Port has a number of shallow and narrow sections, which considerably restricts the parcel sizes of the vessels and allows only for one-way traffic. The channel is a vital artery to the port and its industries and needs to be Upgraded to safeguard the future exports and imports of the port industries and users, remain a competitive port, provide adequate service levels to the customers, and enhance the safety of navigation. This paper describes the study carried out and highlights in particular how (1) Advanced technical tools such as mathematical ship manoeuvring simulations are applied to optimise the channel configuration and hence save dredging costs; (2) A detailed cost recovery model can result in an effective financing plan, ensuring an equitable funding solution for the channel upgrade; and (3) An interactive approach with the Client and ultimate channel users results in a fully accepted and implemented project.

A 3-D hydrodynamic numerical model was developed to analyze the pressure fields generated by deep-draft vessels in the Inner and Outer Harbor Channels. The Vessel Generated Pressure Field (VGPF) model simulates pressure field distributions and calculates water surface elevations in the channels during deep-draft vessel passage. The model output (water surface elevations) was used as input for the Multi-Operational Structural Engineering Simulator (MOSES) model. MOSES is a numerical model that simulates stresses in marine structures and analyzes the structural dynamics of mooring lines, time-history of berthing system response to input wave forcing, and provides time-domain stress analysis. MOSES results were used to identify the capacity of the existing berthing systems to withstand the hydrodynamic forces generated by passing vessels, develop modifications to the existing mooring system, or design a new mooring system if the capacity of the existing system is not sufficient to withstand pressure field impacts. Field data were collected in the Inner Harbor Waterway to validate the numerical model. The long-period pressure field waves were compared with numerical modeling results for each event. The validated VGPF model was used to evaluate the pressure field effects at future berths 55–56 and the existing APL Terminal in the Inner Harbor Waterway, and at Berths 35–57 along the Outer Harbor Waterway. The results of the VGPF model were used as input for MOSES model simulations.

The James River Navigation Channel stretches 90 miles from Newport News at Hampton Roads to the head of navigation at Richmond, Virginia. This historic waterway with a currently maintained depth of 25 feet carries over six million tons of domestic and international cargo in the Commonwealth of Virginia. In the early 1990s, frequent shoaling and deferred maintenance dredging caused the Virginia Pilot Association to restrict vessel draft to as shallow as 18 feet in the upper reach of the river for vessels in international commerce. This paper will present a review of the actions taken and the partnerships developed for the planning, finance, design, and ongoing dredging activities to return full depth, year-round navigation to the James River; including dredge material placement site improvements, accelerated maintenance dredging and channel realignment. It will also discuss the coordination between the public and private terminals, pilots, ship agents, and the federal government to maximize the potential for the James River and plan for its future.