Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste

The paper presents the characterization and methane generation potential of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in four nonengineered landfill sites in Himachal Pradesh located in Solan, Sundernagar, Mandi, and Baddi. The study was conducted over three seasons, including summer (April–May 2017), the rainy season (July–August 2017), and winter (November 2017) to account for seasonal variation of the waste generated. Physical characterization of the MSW generated at the study locations showed high percentages of organic waste for all three seasons. The average values of organic fractions were 55.35% (Solan), 51.87% (Sundernagar), 54.20% (Mandi), and 50.40% (Baddi). The average moisture content and density of the MSW generated varied between 42% and 51% and 465 and $552\mathrm{kg}/{\mathrm{m}}^3$, respectively, over the three seasons. The average $\mathrm{C}:\mathrm{N}$ ratios over the three seasons were 32.03, 30.14, 26.57, and 23.92 for Baddi, Solan, Mandi, and Sundernagar, respectively, and hence were amenable for composting because for composting, the C:N ratio should vary between 20 and 30. The average calorific values were 2,626, 2,580, 2,476, and $\mathrm{2,352}\mathrm{kcal}/\mathrm{kg}$ for Baddi, Sundernagar, Mandi, and Solan, respectively, and were suitable for energy generation because the waste is suitable for waste to energy (WTE) procedures when the calorific value is greater than $\mathrm{2,000}\mathrm{kcal}/\mathrm{kg}$. Further, the average methane generation varied between 11.57 and 15.78 ppm ${\mathrm{CH}}_4/\mathrm{g}$ waste generated, making it suitable for recovery due to the presence of high organic fraction in the waste and potential waste to energy methods as discussed. The presence of methane gas indicated the potential for biogas generation from the waste and its biodegradability under the existing dumping conditions.

A risk assessment model was developed and combined with hydrogeological data to determine the permissible limit of fecal coliform in water during riverbank filtration (RBF). It combined an analytical solution of water flow and contaminant transport from a stream to an infiltration gallery. The model was developed to simulate stream stage rise conditions and monitor harmful pathogens during infiltration. The analytical element method (AEM) was used to measure the travel time of water toward the gallery for a given rise in stream stage under an unsteady state of flow condition. To study the contaminant concentration variation, pathogen transport considering dispersion and decay was analyzed. Pathogen transport in groundwater was simulated using a logistic function that integrates an AEM. To achieve the objective of an appropriate location of an infiltration gallery, the desired reduction of pathogen concentration was evaluated. The analysis for optimum distance with various trials of water travel time is also presented. This study examined the potential of RBF systems for an infiltration gallery considering its safe distance against pathogen shock load during the storm. However, further biogeochemical modeling is needed to predict the fate of contaminants during their transit to the infiltration gallery.

Evaluation of the water quality index is highly complex and needs competent models to assess at global and regional scales. A fuzzy-based inference system (FIS) provides an effective tool for solving this type of complex problems. This study presents the development of a Mamdani-type fuzzy-based regional water quality index (FRWQI) consisting of 10 water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen (DO), fecal coliforms (FC), biological oxygen demand (BOD), pH, nitrogen, suspended solids (SS), alkalinity, turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and electrical conductivity (EC). It can be used for the evaluation of the water quality index of various river basins across the world. The assessment of surface water quality was proposed with three classes using classifications from six countries in various geographic regions. The FRWQI is comparable to water quality models used in India, Malaysia, and the United States, despite its varied geographic origin, and can help in the self-assessment of regional water quality on a global scale.

The underutilization of fly ash, in contrast with its generation, and scarcity of natural aggregates paved the way to unconventional construction approaches, thereby ensuring environmental stability by preserving valuable land from huge waste dumps and protecting fast depleting natural aggregate resources. In this work, fly ash stabilized with lime and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) are studied to assess their utility as a subbase material in flexible pavements. Laboratory investigations were carried out to determine compaction characteristics, unconfined compressive strength, California bearing ratio (CBR), shear strength parameters, and elastic modulus to obtain optimum mixtures of fly ash–lime (FAL) and fly ash–GBFS (FAG), respectively. Both optimum mixes satisfied the minimum strength criteria stipulated by the Indian Road Congress (IRC) for a material to be used as a subbase layer in a flexible pavement. To validate the feasibility of construction, service life, and cost efficiency of pavement constructed with these mixtures, six different test sections were constructed with FAL and FAG in the subbase layers and compared with one constructed with conventional granular subbase (GSB). Proper quality control was maintained throughout the construction of test sections by carrying out field dry density, lightweight deflectometer (LWD), and field CBR tests on the finished subbase layers. On the basis of the initial structural evaluation of pavement sections by a falling weight deflectometer (FWD) test, it was found that both FAL and FAG can effectively replace conventional GSB.

Excessive pH ($>11$) and inconsistent engineering properties because of the chemicomineralogical composition of red mud warrant devising an alternate approach to render it more environmentally benign. In this study, the performance of lime stabilization coupled with oxalic acid, which acts as a neutralizing agent, was explored systematically to improve the long-term strength and to reduce the alkalinity of red mud. The mechanisms governing the behavior of additives along with their effects were investigated by examining the mineralogical, elemental, and morphological characteristics. The results suggest an effect of sodalite and alumina on the inconsistency in dry unit weight and claylike behavior of red mud. A reduction in pH was found to be instrumental during early phases of lime stabilization and in precipitation of cementitious hydration products, leading to strength gain in the long term in red mud. Moreover, the addition of lime and oxalic acid was found to yield more encouraging results than lime treatment alone, and hence this is recommended to be used for red mud stabilization. The obtained results were substantiated by comparison with code provisions.

The objective of this study was to characterize the leachate collected from landfills containing municipal solid waste incineration (MSW-I) ashes in the range of 20%–100% by weight. Results suggested that the conductivity and concentrations of major cations $({\mathrm{Na}}^{+},{\mathrm{K}}^{+},{\mathrm{Ca}}^{2+})$ and anions (${\mathrm{Cl}}^{-}$ and ${\mathrm{Br}}^{-}$) increased with ash content, while alkalinity decreased with ash content. MSW-I ash contents had little effect on pH, TOC, ${\mathrm{NH}}_4^{+}$, trace metals, and ${\mathrm{SO}}_4^{2-}$. Comparing the metal composition in the MSW-I ashes and associated ash monofill leachate, the leaching of metals, including Mg, Fe, Cu, Ni, and Al, were not as significant as expected. As, Cd, Pb, and Zn in ash monofill leachate were even below the quantification limit. The effect of MSW-I ash on landfill systems is further discussed. Leachate containing the MSW-I ash might increase the risk of leachate collection system (LCS) clogging. The risk of mineral precipitation in the LCS increased with the ash content mainly due to the increasing concentration of Ca. High ionic strength as well as the high anion ratio of the leachates might increase the hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs).

Soil-like material (SLM) constitutes the largest component of reclaimed material from old municipal solid waste (MSW) dumps, often exceeding 50% of the excavated material. One attractive option for use of this material is bulk applications in earthfills instead of natural soil. This paper presents the leaching characteristics of soil-like fraction (finer than 4.75 mm) of aged municipal solid waste excavated from three old dumps of India. The leaching behavior of this soil-like fraction was assessed to examine its use as an earthfill. The total dissolved solids (TDS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), release of color, and ammoniacal nitrogen in the leachate from soil-like material were found significantly higher in comparison with the water extract of local soil. Relatively elevated concentration of some metals (arsenic, chromium, copper, cobalt, and nickel) were observed in the leachate from soil-like material in comparison to the water extract of local soils. The study indicates that the soil-like fractions obtained from landfill mining have to be screened for physicochemical characteristics and pollution potential before using them as an earthfill.

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation under different environmental conditions deteriorates to different extents. The objective of this study was to evaluate changes in the physical and chemical properties of LDPE strips under four different environmental conditions: air, double distilled water (DDW), and two salt solutions with ionic strengths of 0.017 M (corresponding to potable water) and 0.6 M (corresponding to sea water) by incubating them for 90 days at 30°C. LDPE samples were taken out at time intervals of 30, 60, and 90 days and analyzed for various mechanical (tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and percentage elongation), physical (surface roughness, texture, topography, morphology, and composition), and chemical properties. Photodegradation of LDPE was greatest in air, followed by DDW, 0.017 M aqueous salt solution, and, finally and least of all, in 0.6 M salt solution. Increasing salt concentrations resulted in the protection of LDPE strips from photodegradation due to the formation of salt crystals on film surface. The presence of oxygen was found to be the most important factor in the initiation of photooxidative degradation of LDPE film.

This paper presents the results on workability testing as well as strength testing of self-compacting concrete containing partial/full coarse recycled concrete aggregates and ternary blended cement using ultrafine recycled powder (RP) and silica fume (SF). In past decades, researchers have focused on the use of recycled aggregates (RA) in concrete as a replacement for natural aggregates (NA) in developing normal vibrated concrete (NVC). But the use of RA in self-compacting concrete (SCC) is still at the initial level. In this study, comparisons were made among different mixes containing SF, RP, and fly ash (FA), and various workability tests were performed at different time intervals from the start of mixing of the concrete. Similarly, compressive strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength tests on 28-day water-cured hardened concrete mixes were carried out. The analysis is presented, and the results show that up to 10% RP can be used considering its effect on the workability of concrete.

Electrokinetic remediation (EKR) is probably the only feasible alternative to treat contaminated soils with low hydraulic conductivity. This technology is based on the application of an electric current between two groups of electrodes into the soil inducing several transport and transformation processes. As a result, the contaminants and water are transported toward the electrodes by electromigration, electroosmosis, electrophoresis, and diffusion. This study applied EKR to a real soil with a high concentration of lead. To evaluate the most suitable reagent to enhance the technique, semibatch extraction and EKR experiments at different scales were carried out. The enhancing agents used were acetic and nitric acids as weak and strong acids, respectively, and EDTA as a complexing reagent. A mathematical model for the comparison of the energy requirements at different scales was applied, showing that the defined parameter is a useful tool for the prediction of the energy requirements of EKR technique. The results indicate that the proposed methodology allows better knowledge about the behavior of contaminants under different experimental conditions.

Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) is a major form of municipal waste management worldwide that generates an ash product, or unburned material, composed of slags, metals, glass, ceramics, and trace amounts of unburned organics. Because the physical properties of MSWI ash are similar to traditionally used aggregates in construction, there is growing interest in the use of MSWI ash in civil engineering applications, such as a road base aggregate. An item commonly found in municipal waste is postconsumer batteries. This research investigated the environmental impact of postcombustion consumer batteries (PCCB) on an MSWI ash aggregate for road base. The leaching of trace metals from ash with increasing amounts of PCCB (1%, 2%, 5%, and 10% by mass) was examined using the Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP). PCCB leaching was also assessed separately (100% by mass). The leaching results suggest that presence of PCCB in ash at low mass percentages (1%–10%) does not contribute to the leaching of trace metals beyond the environmental risk thresholds used to evaluate beneficial use activities.

Pollution of Bengaluru lakes with partially treated sewage and stormwater runoffs has led to frequent algal blooms and fish kills in the lakes. This study examined the biochemical parameters of four polluted Bengaluru lakes to arrive at a proposal to control excess algal growth in the lakes. Results of the study indicate that during nonbloom conditions, the lakes classify as oligotrophic and mesotrophic lakes. During bloom conditions, the lakes mainly classify as eutrophic and hypereutrophic lakes. Reduction in bicarbonates, increase in pH, and insensitivity of chemical oxygen demand (COD) during algal growth experiments in the laboratory suggest the dominance of autotrophic algae in the lakes. Regulating COD levels of Bengaluru lakes at or below $15\mathrm{mg}/\mathrm{L}$ is recommended to reduce microbial activity and associated bicarbonate production. Reduction in nutrients and bicarbonate levels will in turn control excess algal growth. Alkaline lake water from photosynthetic metabolism of algae causes precipitation of calcite, dolomite, and magnesite minerals and concomitant reduction in Ca, Mg, and bicarbonate ion concentrations in the lake water.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) management involves economic and technical aspects and regulatory normative constraints. The selection of an optimal configuration for transportation routes, treatment technologies, and disposal sites is of prime importance in MSW management. In this paper, a mixed integer linear optimization model is presented, taking into account uncertainty in waste quantity and the capacity of waste treatment facilities. The MSW management was planned in order to reduce the total cost involved in solid waste management, the total environmental risk due to treatment facilities, and the volume of waste at the sources. A population-weighted vehicle routing (PWVR) optimization model was used for locating optimized waste sources/centers. The analysis of single objectiveoptimization, multiobjective optimization, and goal programming reveal that total costs very to some extent with the varying of waste quantity and quality of incinerator. Uncertainty analysis for waste quantity ($\theta$), unrecovered waste ($\gamma$), and capacity of waste treatments/disposal facilities ($\lambda$) considered three cases. In Case 1, the optimization model was run for different values of $\theta$ with increments of 0.1 keeping a constant value of $\lambda =1$. In Case 2, the model was run for different values of $\lambda$ with increments 0.1 and a constant value of $\theta$. Case 3 represented simultaneously changing values of $\theta$ and $\lambda$ with increments of 0.1. Uncertainty analysis revealed that waste quantity affect more on the planning of waste management than the capacity of the treatment/disposal facilities. The total cost obtained in Case 2 was more dependent on the facilities than on the quantity of waste. The optimized value for total environmental risk and waste volume reduction was obtained with Cases 2 and 3 only. Total cost obtained using single objective optimization was lower, in general, than the value obtained by multiobjective optimization and goal programming.

Soil contamination due to industrial and anthropogenic activities results in the transformation of fertile land into futile. Hence remediation of the soil is required. To surmount the difficulties associated with some of the earlier soil remediation methods, an environmentally friendly technique called phytoremediation is currently being employed to restore the potency of the soil. The plants like Helianthus annuus have shown good potential for extracting heavy metals from the soil. But still many species are not yet tested for their potential to extract the heavy metal contaminants from the soil. Hence, plant species like Macrotyloma uniflorum and Vigna radiate along with an already known plant, Helianthus annuus, were tested for their potential to extract the metal contaminants from the soil. The contaminated soil, containing heavy metals like chromium, cadmium, and lead, was prepared in the laboratory. Plants were grown in the contaminated and controlled soil pots for 28 days, and soil samples were collected every week from each pot. Significant phytoremediation was observed with all three selected plant species. Among the three plants, Helianthus annuus showed the maximum remediation of all three contaminated metals (Cr 74%, Cd 42.2%, and Pb 62%), whereas Macrotyloma uniflorum and Vigna radiata remediated chromium to the maximum extent and the other two heavy metals to a lesser extent. Macrotyloma uniflorum remediated Cr, Cd, and Pb to the extent of 72%, 27.81%, and 37.39%, respectively. Vigna radiata remediated Cr, Cd, and Pb to the extent of 72.54%, 27.66%, and 47.43%, respectively. From this study, it is very clear that all three plants can be used effectively for phytoremediation of contaminated soils in a short duration.

Geotextile tubes with polyacrylamide flocculants are widely used in dewatering applications. Due to variations in solid concentrations during dredging, excess flocculant is sometimes released into the environment, where it might have toxic effects. This study determined optimum doses for a cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) and a natural-based polymer alternative, cationic starch (C. Starch). Slurry samples were treated with optimum and 50% overdoses of each compound, and residual polymer concentrations were measured. Overdosed C. Starch resulted in low residuals ($<2\mathrm{ppm}$), but overdosed CPAM resulted in 17.4 ppm residual polymer. The relative toxicity of CPAM and C. Starch was also tested using zebrafish embryos. 100% of embryos that had their chorion removed and 71.8% of embryos that retained their chorions were dead or dying after 7 days of exposure to CPAM. In contrast, there was no statistically significant difference in the numbers of embryos that were dead or dying when exposed to C. Starch compared with controls. These data strongly suggest that C. Starch should be considered as a replacement for CPAM in dewatering applications.

Particulate air pollution during the winter season in the urban regions of India is severe due to substantial fuel and mineral combustion in adverse climatic conditions. In this work, chemical characteristics and sources of coarse particulate matter (${\mathrm{PM}}_{10}$) and particulates associated chemicals during winter period of years 2006–2013 in the polluted city of Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India, are reported. The ambient air coarse particulate (${\mathrm{PM}}_{10}$) concentration during the winter period of 2006–2007 ranged from 221 to $760\mathrm{\mu g}{\mathrm{m}}^{-3}$. The major fraction of the ${\mathrm{PM}}_{10}$ was composed of organic carbon, elemental carbon, iron, calcium, and sulfate. Their concentrations were remarkably reduced in the rainy season due to high wind speeds (around $10{\mathrm{kmh}}^{-1}$) and removal with rain. The concentration variations and sources of PM and associated chemical species (i.e., carbons, ions, and metals) in the ambient air are discussed.

Complex environmental and health issues are on the rise in India because of the country’s huge emissions of carbonaceous particulates. The aim of this study was to describe concentration variation, segregation, composition, and sources of carbonaceous particulates—elemental carbon (EC) [also known as black carbon (BC)], organic carbon (OC), and carbonate carbon (CC) associated with coarse (${\mathrm{PM}}_{10}$) and fine particulate matter (${\mathrm{PM}}_{2.5}$)—from 2005 to 2013 in India’s most polluted city, Raipur. Raipur, located in central India, is surrounded by coal-based heavy industry. Annual ambient air concentrations ($n=40$) of ${\mathrm{EC}}_{2.5}$, ${\mathrm{OC}}_{2.5}$, and ${\mathrm{CC}}_{2.5}$ varied 0.5–64.7, 0.1–52.1, and $0-9.1\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{g}{\mathrm{m}}^{-3}$, respectively, during the study period. ${\mathrm{EC}}_{10}$, ${\mathrm{OC}}_{10}$, and ${\mathrm{CC}}_{10}$ concentrations were higher than ${\mathrm{C}}_{2.5}$ concentrations and ranged 0.9–74.9, 2.2–56, and $0-29.8\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{g}{\mathrm{m}}^{-3}$, respectively. The composition and segregation of particulate matter are discussed here. The potential source contribution function (PSCF) analysis model was used for apportioning distant carbon sources.

This article describes work performed on behalf of the US Department of Energy (DOE) to disposition 467 government-owned, sealed californium-252 (${}^{252}\mathrm{Cf}$) sources located at 52 academic and government research sites. These sources are the legacy of the DOE ${}^{252}\mathrm{Cf}$ Loan/Lease Program, which operated from the late 1960s until 2008, when the loan program closed abruptly. Although the DOE took decades to fabricate and distribute the sources, best safety and nuclear accountability practices demanded retrieval or disposition of all loaned sources as soon as achievable after the loan program was closed. An adaptable disposition approach was developed, and disposition of the sources was pursued. The approach involved a combination of source retrievals, disposal actions, and source ownership transfers. A new shielded shipping container was designed and deployed to aid in source retrievals. In a couple cases, incomplete source fabrication and shipping records prevented shipment, and those sources were left indefinitely with the customer in a safe configuration. All the sources in the inventory were safely dispositioned in some way, and lessons learned from this effort are provided.

Coal-fired power plants cause serious environmental impacts associated with air pollution, particulate matter, and heavy metals (HMs), among others. In this work, the spatial, temporal, and vertical concentration variations, pollution indices, and sources of As, Cr, Cd, Pb, Hg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, and Ni heavy metals were studied in the surface soil of the largest coal-burning area in India (Korba Basin) from 2011 to 2015. Heavy metal concentrations were in the following ranges: $49–164{\mathrm{mg}\mathrm{kg}}^{-1}$ (As and Cr), $0.11–0.56{\mathrm{mg}\mathrm{kg}}^{-1}$ (Cd), $72-194{\mathrm{mg}\mathrm{kg}}^{-1}$ (Pb), and $0.11–0.39{\mathrm{mg}\mathrm{kg}}^{-1}$ (Hg). Pollution indices showed a very severe contamination, especially for As, Ni, and Pb. In particular, the detected As content in the soil in both arsenite and arsenate forms was several times higher than the permissible limit. Urgent measures are needed to minimize the rate of contamination and remediate the extraordinarily serious heavy metals pollution problem in this area.

In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to propose a lightweight backfill material using industrial wastes, namely quarry waste and granulated rubber. Granulated rubber was added in varying percentages (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%) to quarry waste for obtaining lightweight material. Laboratory investigation has been performed in the present study to examine the physical, chemical, and geotechnical properties of quarry waste and the geotechnical behavior of quarry waste–granulated rubber (QWGR) mixes. Using granulated rubber as additive, the unit weight of quarry waste material was found to reduce from 21.8 to $14.1\mathrm{kN}/{\mathrm{m}}^3$ for QWGR30 mix. The friction angle of quarry waste was obtained to be 51.2°, which increased by about 14° with rubber addition for the QWGR30 mix. The permeability of quarry waste was found to improve from fine sand to coarse sand range with the granulated rubber inclusion, making it an efficient backfill material. QWGR30 mix was found to be an efficient lightweight backfill material with reduced lateral pressure by about 73% and 85% compared to quarry waste and conventional sand, respectively. The economic savings of the project on backfill material by using QWGR30 over conventional sand would be around 8.35%.