New Pipeline Technologies, Security, and Safety

This is the keynote address at the plenary session at the beginning of the 2003 ASCE International Conference on Pipeline Engineering and Construction.

The trenchless methods of rehabilitation and installation of cables and pipes have gone through a massive period of development in the past 25 years. Gravity drains and sewers in the non-man-accessible region have benefited greatly from this development. Depending on outside limiting factors, the methods that have been tried and have proven themselves on the market make it possible, to repair and renovate pipelines from the inside and to replace them underground in the same line path as well as to install new lines in a trenchless manner almost independently of the line-specific, geological and hydro-geological limiting conditions. In this discussion, the most important developments in this field are portrayed and the most important current tendencies of further development are described.

The foundation of effective asset management is an accurate inventory. Buried infrastructure systems such as sanitary sewers and water pipes are particularly challenging because they are both hidden and distributed over relatively large geographic regions. Cost effective management of these assets requires the right systems and processes to capture this information rapidly, maintain the information over time and make decisions based on this information. This paper reviews proven processes for prioritizing, collecting and managing buried infrastructure data. There are hundreds of vendors and products available to manage assets, but surprisingly few that match the specific people, processes and goals of a given utility or municipality. The effective utilization of a Geographic Information System (GIS) as a graphic interface to available information, and examples of when and why to use Global Positioning System (GPS) technology, are presented. The methodology for selecting and implementing a Computerized Maintenance Management System (CMMS) are reviewed as well as suggestions presented for development of a Decision Support System (DSS). By properly prioritizing needs and establishing realistic goals, it is possible to implement a cost-effective asset management system. With the methodology presented, current and future processes and technologies can be matched with the personnel available and needed to achieve your goals.

Managing infrastructure assets represents several challenges and requires an interesting array of resources. Any management strategy requires an estimation of the potential degradation of an asset over its life cycle, an analysis of the impact from asset failure and a set of actions (e.g., maintenance, replacement). An important Research and Development project (Alpha) performed by Harfan Technologies Inc. was aimed at developing advanced approaches and algorithms to address those challenges. The investigation of asset behavior over a specific timeframe led to consider the Reliability Theory to model the asset failure risk. In practice, asset failure rates or reliability distributions are not well known. Consequently, it is of interest to propose a methodology that estimates the empirical reliability of an asset based on historical data. The asset reliability distribution was then used to address asset management problem. Three fundamental management problems were identified: Micro-management (segment level analysis), Macro-management (network level analysis) and Strategic management (integrated asset management).

Although the water and wastewater industry was somewhat late in adopting benchmarking (the first AWWARF Benchmarking Study was commissioned in 1995), there has been a great deal of activity involving benchmarking, best practices and the associated data bases since that time. Much of the early application of these techniques was in treatment plants. This was understandable since much of the competitive pressures came from contract operators in treatment plant operations. More recently, however the focus has shifted to distribution and collection systems. This paper reviews the history of benchmarking and best practices, and industry efforts to develop universal performance measures. This paper will also describe the transition from the use of cost and staffing models to the use of peer groups as a benchmarking technique. Available tools and databases will be described and an example of a distribution system benchmarking is presented.

Corrosion is the primary cause of failure of buried water distribution pipelines (waterlines). Failures of corroding waterlines can be optimally avoided by implementing an asset-management program that is based on predictive restoration. Unlike preventive restoration that typically does wholesale replacement of aging pipelines, predictive restoration utilizes knowledge of the remaining useful life (RUL) of waterline segments to perform selective repairs and upgrades cost-effectively, "just-in-time". Calculating RUL values for waterline segments requires using the results of a complete assessment of the waterline's structural integrity in a model of waterline corrosion. Such condition assessment may be accomplished using remote field technology (RFT). This paper describes the use of RFT, together with predictive modeling, to perform asset management of waterlines.

The population of Seoul metropolitan city is more than 12 million, and the demand for clean and enough drinking water has been increasing. The first water treatment plant was built in 1908, with an initial capacity of 12,500 tons per day (3 mgd). Water treatment capacity today in Seoul has increased to more than 7.3 million tons per day (1750 mgd). The purpose of this comprehensive planning effort was to improve the quantity and quality of water supplied to customers during natural disasters or system failure. Additionally, it was important to establish system design criteria for providing adequate water system capacity and quality stability during emergencies.

The Governmental Accounting Standards Board issuance of GASB Statement No. 34, Basic Financial Statements — and Management's Discussion and Analysis — for State and Local Governments will change the way many municipal water utilities report their financial information and make the information between utilities more comparable and consistent. This paper focuses on the impact GASB 34 will have on infrastructure reporting for municipal utilities, the role information technology will play in compliance, and how the Norfolk, VA Department of Utilities intends to use information technology for compliance.

This paper will initially focus on the methodology employed to evaluate and assess the condition of a 50-year old major interceptor sewer in the City of Baltimore, and then moves to a review of the design considerations employed for the rehabilitation and replacement of the Upper Jones Falls Interceptor. Evaluation of an existing sewer and preparation of design drawings and specifications to rehabilitate the sewer sounds like a reasonably straightforward type of engineering task. Ordinarily this might be so, but rehabilitation of the Upper Jones Falls Interceptor is anything but ordinary.

Replacement of 325 feet of sagging 12-inch diameter asbestos concrete sanitary sewer may appear to be a straightforward design assignment. However, for this specific project, replacement of 325 feet of sagging 12-inch diameter sanitary sewer has turned into a 2.5 year design process for a project with an estimated construction cost of $1.6 million. This paper will present the complicating project specifics, technologies evaluated, decisions made, effects on schedule and cost, and lessons learned.

Investment in pipe rehabilitation must be based on inspection and evaluation of pipe conditions with respect to severity of pipe structural damage and to environmental risks. However, pipe inspection is very costly. Therefore mathematical screening methods are needed to aid in assessing pipe condition. This paper presents a method for assessing the condition of pipes where there is uncertainty in the available data. Fuzzy set theory has been employed to convert linguistic descriptions of pipe conditions indicator into numerical format. Then using composite programming techniques a screening model is developed that ranks pipes in order of their condition. It is anticipated that the developed model will assist engineers in prioritising pipe inspection and in pipe rehabilitation.

Traditionally, CCTV inspection has been widely used for sewer pipeline inspection when the pipe size is not large enough for the human entry. Although CCTV inspection delivers robust inspection capability, assessment results are highly dependent on the operator's ability, experience, and concentration. The limitations of the CCTV camera and light conditions often cause incorrect defect identification. While many municipalities invest millions of dollars for computerized asset management systems, the lack of reliability of source data (i.e., inaccurate or incorrect inspection result) makes the million-dollar investment useless. A digital scanner like the Sewer Scanner and Evaluation Technology (SSET) has been gradually accepted as a superior alternative to CCTV for accurate condition assessment. The improved image quality provides improved inspection accuracy and reliability. However, digital scanners are still not completely independent from human errors. This paper presents a brief overview of SSET^TM and automatic condition assessment by use of SSET.

On October 13, 2002, an existing 60-inch Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe (PCCP) water transmission main, constructed in the mid 1970s, suffered a catastrophic failure near the intersection of Clay and Cullen immediately east of downtown Houston. The recent failure raises concerns about the water main's long-term performance and structural integrity. The nature of some PCCP failures is the instant release of a large quantity of water resulting in significant damage to the surrounding area, as realized on October 13th.

The water distribution system in Cheyenne, Wyoming, includes four prestressed concrete cylinder pipelines (PCCP), approximately 13.5 miles long. The 16- to 30-in. diameter lined cylinder pipes (LCP) are about fifty years old, as they were installed between 1950 and 1962. Three transmission pipelines carry raw and treated water. The fourth pipeline is a part of the distribution system. The pipelines have not experienced any failures. Condition assessment of the pipelines was performed as a part of a proactive approach to pipeline maintenance, without taking the lines out of service. Condition assessment included: (i) data collection, review of historical records, (ii) corrosion survey including electromagnetic conductivity testing, (iii) geotechnical and groundwater investigations, (iv) external test-pit inspection, (v) testing of mortar coating and prestressing wire samples, hydraulic transient analysis, (vi) structural evaluation of the lined cylinder pipe, and (vii) failure risk of pipe with broken prestressing wires and corroded steel cylinder. This paper presents the methodology and the results of condition assessment of the four pipelines.

Corrosion of the high strength steel wire wrapping in Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe (PCCP) continues to be an issue for several water suppliers across the country. One such water supplier is Tampa Bay Water who supplies water to multiple water agencies in the Tampa, FL region. A critical pipeline in Tampa Bay Water's regional transmission main network is an 84-inch PCCP line that was installed in the 1970s and is 25 miles long. The paper describes the internal inspections, the acoustic monitoring system, and the results of anticipated excavations.

Maintaining pipelines is important to ensure the cost-effective transport of both water and wastewater. Obtaining adequate information about the condition of the system is the key to selecting appropriate maintenance and rehabilitation remedies. This paper presents an overview of the current methods of assessing pipelines and planning pipeline maintenance using existing and new internal and external inspection technologies.

Over the last quarter century numerous techniques have been developed for the non-destructive evaluation of large diameter prestressed concrete cylinder pipelines (PCCP). Current internal inspection tools available for PCCP include visual and sounding inspections, Sound Print acoustic emission monitoring, and P-Wave electromagnetic testing. Complimenting these evaluation techniques is traditional engineering evaluation employing the results of resistivity and potential surveys; soil, groundwater and pipe materials testing; and structural and hydraulic analysis. With this diverse PCCP evaluation toolbox, it is incumbent upon the engineer to select the appropriate tools for condition assessment of a pipeline while tailoring the evaluation approach to the needs of the owner. A brief history of the manufacturing and inspection of PCCP is presented. Non-destructive PCCP evaluation tools are then reviewed. Steps in the development of a PCCP assessment program are discussed. First the goals of the owner are established, which may include mitigation of catastrophic failures, estimation of remaining service life, or development of maintenance and rehabilitation strategies. Next the applicability of the available assessment tools to achieve the goals of the owner are evaluated. Selection of PCCP inspection tools must take into account the individual pipeline design and construction characteristics as well as operational constraints, such as the ability to take the line out of service for internal inspection. Tools are selected which will provide the information necessary for assessment of the pipeline. Finally, the engineering analyses required to effectively apply the results of the assessment program are elucidated.

Information management systems and expert systems enable asset managers to get the most use out of available information. The emergence of Integrated Decision Support Systems (IDSS) provides a new look at how infrastructure networks are managed by performing a global analysis of adjacent networks simultaneously (e.g., water, sewers and roads). This means municipal decision-makers can, at least possible effort, produce capital plans and fine-tune synchronization of work on networks, thus making the best use of available funds. IDSS further boost the usage of information involved in the decision making process, by combining multiple sources of information and specialized systems, such as hydraulic models. In this manner, a good condition assessment is driven by the hydraulic capacity, water quality, as well as structural integrity. So, the addition of some hydraulic model results to the decision-making process enhances the accuracy of the capital improvement plan. This paper provides a case study for assessing the condition of a water distribution network using an engineering management system (EMS) and the range of benefits that can be produced by deploying this kind of software in a public organization.

This paper presents the results of four hydrostatic pressure tests performed on prestressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP), embedded-cylinder type, with broken wires. Two of the pipes tested were new 66-in. pipe cast for the purpose of testing two months earlier. The other two pipes were removed from a line after Remote Field Eddy Current /Transformer Coupling showed broken wires due to hydrogen embrittlement resulting from high voltage of the cathodic protection system. In the first two pipes, broken wires were induced by (1) cutting and removing the wires over a 4-ft length of the pipe from the entire pipe circumference and (2) by cutting the wires over a 4-ft length along a line. The first pipe removed from the line had 45 broken wires and was tested to failure. In testing the second pipe, 36 additional wires were cut. The results showed the failure modes of PCCP with broken wires. They also showed that the strength of PCCP with broken wires is in fact much greater than the strength of steel cylinder. The additional strength is derived from the block arching strength of cracked concrete. The paper presents the test results and the conclusions for comparison with finite elements and simplified analyses, performed as parts of the risk analysis of pipes with broken wires when subjected to the combined effects of internal pressure and earthload and pipe and fluid weights.

Due to increase of per capita water usage, water supply costs and population growth rate; optimal usages of available resources are vital. This is especially important in developing countries. If we add water resource deficits to the above problems, its importance duplicates. One of the ways of using resources optimally is utilizing transferred water in distribution systems properly and preventing its loss. Unaccounted for water (UFW) is an indicator of water loss in most cities. A big part of UFW is due to leakage of pipeline in distribution systems. Researchers have found direct relation between leakage and pressure in distribution systems. Earlier works have shown a series of laboratory results, which dose not represent the real situation in distribution systems, or the results have a high variety, in which no unique and accurate relation can be achieved. In this paper, water distribution system of the city of Sanandaj (capital of Kurdistan province of Iran) was selected as a case study. In order to obtain a mathematical relationship, a measurement including discharged water and pressure on five locations on the water supply pipeline was performed at the same time. To obtain a unique and accurate relation and to overlap probable errors, measurements were taken in 18 days in one-hour intervals. Results show a power trend line was fitted on the data and an experimental relation obtained with a low variety, which can be employed to evaluate the effect of pressure loss on leakage, and so to evaluate UFW.

The Water Works and Sanitary Sewer Board of the City of Montgomery (MWWSSB) chose to outsource the difference in the established goal of its own closed circuit television (CCTV) inspection program and the average amount of work accomplished by it's own staff. Thus, the need arose to establish a single standard between its own inspection work and contracted work. A standard would provide the Engineering Department staff a common CCTV inspection guideline on which to evaluate all inspection work for maintenance, repair, capital improvement, rehabilitation, or simple asset condition assessment. This paper will present the Board's goals in developing specifications for approximately twenty miles of sanitary sewer inspection work and the results of the subsequent contract performed by Insituform Technologies, Inc. The Board's contract specification included CCTV inspection using the Board's inspection standard, development of a defect rating system and inspection ranking system, and preliminary rehabilitation/repair recommendations. The results included a system in which a set of standard observations from CCTV inspection reports were automatically assigned pre-deteremined rating values based on the severity of the observations.

The Ojai Valley Sanitary District (District) receives excessive amounts of infiltration and inflow (I&I) during rainstorms. The District's wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) experiences peak flows over 5 times the average daily flow-rate at times and it "topped over" during the recent rainstorms. The District decided to launch a program to evaluate a portion of the District's collection system and develop a plan to repair and replace damaged and leaky sewer infrastructures. To protect the WWTP from "topping over" during the subsequent rainy season, the project's objective was to identify all the sewer segments that show visible I/I and perform repair/rehabilitation projects on them. In this project, we used point repairs, open-cut replacement, and pipe bursting as the repair/rehabilitation methods to fix the I/I problems. Due to the concern regarding the extent of the I/I problems, the entire project from closed-circuit television (CCTV) to completion of the repair/rehabilitation implementation, was fast-tracked to be completed within a 6-month period. Cooperation among all involved parties and separate bidding of the repair/rehabilitation projects helped in finishing the project in an expedited fashion.

The world's largest single PCCP project is owned and operated by North Africa's Great Man Made River Authority (GMRA). GMRA supplies water from the world's largest well fields to some of its biggest reservoirs. The water is conveyed from aquifers in the middle of the desert to the coast in 4m (157") diameter prestressed concrete cylinder pressure pipes (PCCP). The main conveyance network, measuring 3,500 km (2,200 miles), utilizes almost half a million pipes and transports 6.5 million m³ (5,270 acre-feet) of water per day. GMRA has been using the Pressure Pipe Inspection Company^apos;s (PPIC) Remote Field Eddy Current / Transformer Coupling (RFEC/TC) technology to provide pipeline condition assessment information since April of 2000. To date, GMRA has inspected over 1,500 km (932 miles) of PCCP using the RFEC/TC system to detect and quantify prestressing wire breaks in its PCCP. The results provided by the RFEC/TC technique have enabled GMRA to selectively repair or replace individual pipes - making the cost-effective management of this enormously complex pipeline system possible. During this same period, systematic analysis of the data gathered during inspections has led to advances in PPIC's understanding of the RFEC/TC technique and its application it to the evaluation of water distribution systems.

This report is about work done during the large-scale replacement/ rehabilitation of sewers mostly by trenchless methods in Tshwane, South Africa ("old" Pretoria plus diverse surrounding previously disadvantaged townships) and specifically about that part of a sewer asset management system focussed on condition assessment with a view on replacement. The report describes the Tshwane experience in the above regard and elucidates on motivation for large-scale rehabilitation/ replacement including life cycle costing, describes the procedures and methodology of the asset management system in development and describes current and future changes to the system. The main conclusions are that it is very much worthwhile to do continuous upgrading of sewers. An asset management system is necessary in this regard as well as continuous development thereof. The reasons for delivering the report and accompanying presentation are manifold: -to elicit comment and response from peers in the field, especially from authorities who have done similar work and from purveyors of related technology or equipment and thereby improve the quality of our project; to try and convince others to follow the same route so we can grow stronger through shared experiences and promote economy of scale factors bringing down the cost of upgrading; and to try to make a meaningful contribution to the fields of trenchless technology and asset management.

Ductile iron piping has been used in the United States since the 1960's for water transmission and distribution pipelines. By 1979, ductile iron pipe largely replaced cast iron as the predominant pipe material in the water industry. Therefore, the majority of ductile iron pipelines have only been in Operation for 25 years or less. Failures of ductile iron piping have become more prevalent as the pipelines have gotten older. Most ductile iron pipe (DIP) failures are repaired by water department crews that are not knowledgeable in the proper methods for evaluating the cause of the failures. Experience has shown that the surface condition of DIP is often misleading. Corrosion is frequently overlooked. Knowing the exact cause of a ductile iron pipe failure can provide the critical information that a water utility needs to proactively manage their system. The failure data can be used to determine when a pipeline should be replaced or if rehabilitation measures can be implemented to extend the effective operating life of the pipeline. Corrosion engineering professionals utilize several methods in evaluating ductile iron pipe corrosion. The methods include potential surveys, soil corrosivity evaluations, the direct inspection of piping, and examination of failures. There are specific guidelines that should be followed for determining the corrosivity of soils as well the condition of the pipe and the types of corrosion control methods that should be implemented given the nature of the soils that the pipeline is exposed to.

This paper discusses various corrosion considerations and controversies surrounding ductile iron pipe. Factors that should be considered during corrosion evaluations and pipeline designs are summarized. Different, levels of corrosion control methods based on the anticipated soil corrosivity and risk assessment evaluation are also presented along with their influence on life-cycle analysis.

Cathodic Protection of Large Diameter Water Transmission pipe systems is a viable means of extending the service life of this valuable infrastructure. This technology has been successfully applied to many miles of steel and ductile iron piping systems. The 55,000 water systems in the United States will be faced with many issues relative to infrastructure installation, upgrading and replacement. Costs associated with the system infrastructure are very high, and monies need to be expended prudently. Understanding where cathodic protection can be successfully utilized in extending the service life of infrastructure is an important part of the overall Infrastructure Master Plan. This paper presents the studies performed, the basic technology of cathodic protection and the conclusions of the pilot program. A case history for a pair of large diameter water transmission lines in Rochester, NY would be presented.

The paper reviews the 100% solids rigid polyurethane coatings technology and its increased application on pipeline corrosion protection over the past twenty-five years. The paper begins with the chemistry and performance properties of the technology. The paper then discusses the differences between this technology and other protective coatings systems, providing some guidelines as to the selection of a proper corrosion protective coatings solution for pipelines. Finally, the paper reviews several case histories of the 100% solids rigid polyurethane coatings technology in typical municipal, marine, and oil/gas pipeline applications.

This paper will present and discuss the design, installation, and testing of Cathodic Protection systems installed for the City of Houston's Surface Water Transmission Program. The purpose of this paper is to discuss how the City of Houston is approaching corrosion prevention for large diameter water lines. Furthermore, it will discuss how cathodic protection design has been modified to meet the City's specific needs over a 20-year period.

A corrosion control strategy is outlined for effectively reducing breaks and extending the life of cast and ductile iron water pipe. The strategy derives primarily from corrosion control maintenance programs successfully implemented throughout Canada by various water utilities. The Canadian experience dramatically illustrates the significant capital and repair monies that can be saved by such a program. The key elements of the program typically include a) an upfront corrosion assessment of the water distribution system and; b) installation of galvanic anodes in selected areas of the water distribution system based on the corrosion assessment.

Corrosion related failures of buried metallic water piping not only disrupts water service but also results in increased maintenance costs. Cathodic protection is an electrical method of preventing corrosion attack on metallic piping and has been widely used by a number of water municipalities as a means to ensure long-term operational performance. This paper will review the various approaches and methods of applying cathodic protection to water distribution and transmission piping.

Pipeline operators in the United States will be faced with many issues relative to infrastructure installation, upgrading and replacement. Of concern is system integrity, to minimize service disruptions and the risk of failures and product release. The majority of service interruptions of large infrastructure can be attributed to corrosion. Costs associated with system infrastructure are very high, and monies need to be expended prudently. Understanding infrastructure condition and corrosion exposure is an important part of the overall Infrastructure Master Plan for existing and new piping systems.

Each year billions of dollars are spent around the world on the rehabilitation and/or replacement of concrete sewer pipes damaged by sulfuric acid corrosion. This paper reports the findings of an extensive experimental program undertaken to evaluate the resistance of 17 different concrete mix designs with different additives and w/c ratios to sulfuric acid attack. Silica fume, Metakaolin and Organic Corrosion Inhibitors (OCI) in different concentrations were added to the cement to improve the resistance of the concrete paste to sulfuric acid attack. The weight loss of the concrete samples immersed in two concentrations of sulfuric acid (3% and 7%) was measured to evaluate the degree of concrete degradation. The effect of the various admixtures on the compressive strength and porosity of the concrete samples were also evaluated in an effort to determine the relationships between these attributes and the resistance of the concrete samples to a sulfuric acid attack. Data from a two months exposure test showed that the addition of Metakaolin or OCI to the concrete mix resulted in a significant improvement in the concrete resistance to sulfuric acid attack compared to the control mix. Silica fume treated concrete exhibited little or no improvement compared to the control mix. The data also showed that the compressive strength and porosity of the concrete provide little guidance if any to the resistance of the concrete paste to sulfuric acids attack.

Metallic water mains and transmission pipes hereafter referred to as pipelines are installed in the ground, often in contact with different types of soil, and are exposed to varying service environmental conditions. Corrosion is one of the major factors causing failure in pipelines. One of the most important factors promoting corrosion in pipelines is the conductivity of the soil in contact with the pipeline. Water pipelines are typically embedded either in encasement sands or select backfill materials, and are then covered with the material previously excavated from the pipeline trench. Prior to placing the pipelines, the encasement sand or select backfill material must be properly compacted. Improper compaction may cause the pipelines to settle. The compaction operation is time consuming, expensive, and difficult to inspect. Furthermore, the relatively high conductivity of encasement sands and select backfill materials promote pipeline corrosion. An alternative to encasement sands and select backfill materials is Controlled Low Strength Material (CLSM). An advantage of CLSM is that it does not require compaction. However, there is a concern about the corrosiveness of CLSM. In order to consider CLSM as a viable alternative backfill material to encasement sand, the corrosiveness of CLSM must be compared to that of encasement sand. To do so, this research was designed to compare the corrosiveness of an encasement sand to that of two different types of CLSM.

This paper studies the corrosion mechanism of domestic wastewater on concrete or reinforced concrete pipelines by analyzing the sewerage sampled in different sites and at different times in the sewer pipeline in Chongqing, Peoples Republic of China (P.R. China). The main factors affecting the durability of the concrete pipeline are corrosion of the reinforcement in the concrete caused by hydrogen sulfide and acidic wastewater. Some preventive measures for protecting the concrete and reinforced concrete pipeline are also proposed.

Trenchless technology has attained significant utilization for the renewal of the infrastructure of much of the civilized world. The distribution and collection systems of the world enabled the industrial revolution by permitting large population to live within close proximity. The deteriorations of these underground assets threaten to erode the foundation of modern society from beneath our feet. The sewer and storm drain infrastructure is only thought about when they fail catastrophically, with blockages, backups, or overflowing. Indeed, the industry is faced with increased expenditures often presently uncontrollably.

Since the 1860's, the City of Baltimore has benefited from a unique and well-engineered sanitary sewer system consisting of 3,100 miles of pipe. This system was designed as a separate sanitary sewer during an era when other cities were building combined sanitary/stormwater systems. The development of the collection system by City Engineers is still impressive by today's standards, considering the various designs of siphons, flow diversions, weirs, and large conveyance interceptors and pressure sewers. Past construction not only occurred around City streets and neighborhoods, the City also faced the difficulties of constructing large conveyance pipes near streams and under solid rock foundations. The City is now faced with the development of a very unique and well-designed way of `fixing' current system problems. Today's problems aren't due to the system's design or configuration, but rather to aging pipes, population growth, and system maintenance constraints.

Lateral pipes are similar in many respects to the main pipe. Similar in that both are typically constructed of the same materials, they are generally old, structurally damaged, and a major source of infiltration. In 1992, 17 states reported 34 major water born disease outbreaks affecting 17,000 people. A draft report for the Environmental Protection Agency obtained by U.S. News found that more than a million Americans become ill each year from sanitary-sewer overflows. A 1999 report from the American Society of Civil Engineers indicates that the nation's 500,000 plus miles of sewer lines average 33 years old. However, many cities today are maintaining and operating a wastewater collection system with sections that are nearly 100 years old or more. As much as seventy-percent (70%) of the system's infiltration can originate from faulty house service laterals. Vast amounts of data are being compiled and more and more of the SSO's (sanitary-sewer overflows) are being contributed to faulty service lateral pipes in wastewater collection systems. The US Environmental Protection Agency in conjunction with the Water Environment Federation (WEF) has been aggressively initiating Capacity, Management, Operation and Maintenance (CMOM) implementation workshops. CMOM is part of the SSO's rule that will affect ALL wastewater collection systems and ALL wastewater collection system owners will be required to comply. Laterals offer new challenges for the maintenance and operation of a collection system. The significance of maintaining service lateral pipes is increased when the responsible agency initiates a program for CMOM compliance. The condition of old lateral pipes today exist for many reasons though a major factor is a direct result of typical installations without any engineering, specifications or inspection.

The Derry Township Municipal Authority (DTMA) is an operating Authority responsible for the collection, conveyance and treatment of wastewater generated in and around the unincorporated Village of Hershey, Pennsylvania. The DTMA, which is governed by an appointed seven member Broad, functions with a total staff of 30 employees, to perform all direct operating and administrative support activities. The Collection Department includes six staff personnel responsible for the operation and maintenance of the collection and conveyance system.

As with any new and rapidly emerging industry, the trenchless technology industry has had its share of overblown hype, exaggerated claims and downright quackery. In the last 15 years, technologies have been touted to cure everything including Grandma's gout. As the industry matures, and experience is gained in the field, however, the real value of these technologies and systems has become more apparent. The purpose of this paper is to take a hard look at the trenchless technologies and materials that are out there and to provide the experience of the author regarding which systems work, and which systems are problematic for the renewal of water and wastewater pipelines.

There are many factors that can turn relatively straightforward rehabilitation projects into extensive, ongoing efforts. The continuous pipe diameter, number and size of service connections, joint offsets, curves, and varying wastewater flows are just a few things that can complicate design and construction of any rehabilitation project. The need to address corrosion in the 600-foot long segment of 42-inch diameter sewer in the Potomac Interceptor (PI) system was the foremost concern of this project to avoid a possible pipe failure. The corroded section of 42-inch diameter reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) was located in an area that was difficult to access, making trenchless rehabilitation the best overall option. As was discovered in this project, alternative construction proposals can also throw a monkey wrench into the equation. However, when all parties involved work together towards the common goal of best engineering value, projects can be completed successfully within the allotted budget and ahead of schedule.

The West Roxbury Tunnel (WRT) is one of the major wastewater conveyance tunnels used to convey wastewater from nine communities served by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA). This presentation will present a history of the project that includes rehabilitation of 300 m (980 feet) of 214 cm (84-inch) diameter sewer pipeline and the New Haven Street Drop Chamber (NHSDC). The pipeline and drop chamber were constructed in 1964 of reinforced concrete. In addition to several design challenges, construction in this largely residential neighborhood required the MWRA to develop a unique set of community mitigation measures, such as using trenchless technology. The MWRA greatly improved the public acceptance of the project by clearly conveying to the public the urgency for the immediate repair and the MWRA's commitment to use all feasible means to minimize impacts on the communities most directly impacted by this project.

It is estimated that there are over 4.2 billion feet of wastewater pipelines in the U.S with an estimated value of $1.0 trillion. The anticipated rehabilitation needs to upgrade this system exceeds $34 billion, where as the current annual spending for wastewater rehabilitation is approximately $1.0 billion. One of the main reasons for this dilemma is because prior to the 1980's sanitary sewer rehabilitation was primarily limited to replacement by parallel construction and very little rehabilitation work was done. Due to the advancement in technology new cost effective methods have been developed for inspection and rehabilitation of wastewater systems, which have made the rehabilitation and maintenance a cost effective alternative to replacement/new construction. In recent years, research efforts have concentrated on developing systems that can not only collect accurate relevant data for sanitary sewers but also use this data to make intelligent, cost effective decisions regarding the rehabilitation, operation, and maintenance of the network. This paper presents two state-of-the art technologies for automated assessment of underground sanitary sewer pipelines.

The SAGEP company launched the development of a new testing process for control compaction of trench filling. The principle of the testing, named "OVAMETER", consists in using the pipe as an expansible metric pressure probe for direct measuring of the filling modulus. The dilation of the pipe is obtained by an internal jacking test which causes three-dimensional and relatively slight ovalization of approximately 0.5%. The test equipment consists of a carriage provided with an internal jacking tool, towed by a conventional camera robot. Comparison of the measured modulus with a limit modulus sets up the conformity with the compaction specification. The Ovameter appears to be able to detect with an accurate sensivity a coating filling compaction lacks. Although its application is limited to flexible (plastic and steel) pipes, it represents a complementary innovative tool for dynamic penetrometers.

This paper will discuss the progress of sewer design and rehabilitation projects located in the urban area of Baltimore, and will highlight the benefits of using a specialized non-disruptive design approach. This design approach utilizes common investigative tools to verify existing conditions, use of ground penetrating radar (GPR) to locate overlapping utilities, and is also heavily dependant upon the use of rehabilitative and trenchless construction techniques.

Oftentimes projects develop on their own. This is the case for the rehabilitation of the 42" (1,067 mm) steel water main on Huntington Avenue in Boston, MA. During the 1970's minor leaks developed along a section of approximately 500 feet (150 m) of this major transmission water main. Boston Water and Sewer Commission (Commission), the agency responsible for distributing water to 1.5 million customers, mobilized to make the repairs. Upon excavating to determine the extent of the problem, it became obvious that a long-term problem had developed and a short-term solution would be difficult. The water main had extensive external corrosion. Discussions as to the source of the corrosion were the major focus after steel plates were welded to the steel pipe.

The Washington Aqueduct is a large municipal public water utility that provides wholesale service to the District of Columbia and Northern Virginia. It is unique in the industry because it is a federal organization, wholly funded from the sale of water to its municipal customers. It operates two treatment plants in Washington, DC that are supplied with raw water by a pair of 16.1 kilometer (10 mile) long conduits that divert Potomac River water to the Washington Aqueduct's receiving reservoir. The first of the two conduits is circular in profile, 2.7 meters (nine feet) in diameter and constructed from masonry brick and rubble. It was completed in 1860 and is a National Historic Landmark. At one location it is supported by the Cabin John Bridge, which was the longest single span masonry arch bridge in the world when built. In 1925, a second conduit was constructed on a parallel path to increase the amount of water available for treatment. In this case, a 3.0-meter (10-foot) horseshoe shaped unreinforced concrete conduit was constructed. This paper presents a detailed case study of the Washington Aqueduct's maintenance and inspection process, our design constraints, the challenges encountered, and the lessons learned during the recent rehabilitation of these two conduits.

Corrosion impacts the design, operation and maintenance of every element of a water system. Water wells, treatment equipment, storage facilities and piping systems are all vulnerable to accelerated deterioration from corrosion. Numerous studies have been published that document the causes of corrosion and successful methods of control. The problems related to corrosion in water systems are not new. As early as 1939, the results from a survey performed by the Illinois State Water Survey indicated that 41% of the water systems responding were experiencing corrosion problems involving well pumps, water mains, storage facilities and service lines. Over the years, the basic problems have changed very little, although our understanding and technology for controlling corrosion have improved significantly. Corrosion in water systems must be addressed by every operator to ensure economical supply of high quality water and safe operation of fire protection systems. By properly addressing corrosion mitigation through material selection, coatings and cathodic protection, system life will be extended and operational costs reduced. The economic benefits accrue to both the system operator and ultimately the consumer.

Corrosion monitoring of very large diameter and very long continuous pre-stressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) using the various monitoring techniques is a difficult task at best. Carrying out corrosion monitoring surveys over such a huge expanse poses many technical and logistical problems for the Libyan water authority. New data collection technology using Remote Field Eddy Current /Transformer Coupling (RFEC/TC) inspection, Acoustic Monitoring and standard pipe to soil Close Potential Interval (CIPS) survey techniques are being used separately. This paper discusses the capability of (RFEC/TC) technique in detecting accurately the number of distressed wire and its location in PCCP in addition to confirming the adequacy of Close Interval Potential survey technique in detecting corrosion stages over a span of pipe line prior to wire breaks. Using combined evaluation of both RFEC/TC and CIPS data will extend the capability in identifying corrosion activity that is taking place on the PCCP pipeline conveyance system before RFEC/TC detect distressed wire. The future use of combined RFEC/TC, Acoustic Monitoring and CIPS technologies in assessing PCCP integrity, monitoring CP effectiveness, and in providing real time picture of pipe conditions to ensure the safe PCCP operation is also discussed.

This paper discusses various tools available to develop a systematic approach to forecast water main rehabilitation and renewal needs, and to prioritize water main renewals.

In 2001, Metcalf & Eddy and the Sandwich Water District conducted a successful lining trial using rapid-setting polymeric lining material to determine if the material could prevent PCE from entering the water supply from factory produced vinyl lined asbestos cement (AC) water mains. The detailed results of this trial were published in the June 2003, Journal of the New England Water Works Association. This paper will expand on the lining trial to include the planning, design, and construction of the 8,500 linear foot vinyl lined AC water main relining project recently completed for the Sandwich Water District. The project is one of the first projects in the United States to use the spray applied rapid-setting polymeric lining material. The Sandwich lining project included development of a "same day return to service" procedure for newly lined water mains, which would allow up to 1,400 linear feet of water mains to be taken out of service, relined, and put back in service all within a 12 hour period. The same day return to service project would eliminate the need for overland bypass piping, which would ultimately result in a reduction to the overall project cost. To allow for the elimination of bypass piping, a successful public notification program and a stringent quality assurance program were developed to ensure a successful lining job. Although bypass piping was ultimately provided by the contractor, the programs developed for the same day return to service procedure contributed to a very successful lining project that proved to be a valuable test for these programs.

Deterioration of water distribution systems becomes obvious when the constituents experience poor water quality, reduced hydraulic flow, excessive leakage, and frequent breaks. Pit Cast Iron (PCI), Spun Cast Iron (SCI), Ductile Iron (DI), Steel (STL), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Asbestos Cement (AC), Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe (PCCP), and Reinforced Concrete Pipe (RCP) are all susceptible to these problems. Cost estimates in the range of $200 to 300 billion have been reported for the next decade to rejuvenate the decaying water pipe assets. The trenchless technology industry focused its attention mostly for the past 30 years on repairing our leaking sewers. Because of this innovation, sources indicate that over 50% of the renovation work done on sanitary, storm, and combined sewers are by various trenchless technologies. The picture in the water market is entirely different, where over 90% of the work is still done by dig and replace methods causing havoc to the city streets, environment, traffic, and the city's inhabitants. It is often asserted that the next frontier in the trenchless market would be where more and more water pipelines would be relined using new technologies. Given the increasing attention from the U.S. EPA to meet new clean water regulations, the next 10 years would see a substantial increase in the application of trenchless technologies for renovating our water pipeline infrastructure. This paper provides an overview of various technologies for pressure pipe renovation solutions. It's also time for us as a nation to take account of our wasteful practices within the drinking water industry. When a mere 15% of the drinking water is used for drinking and bathing, while the rest for washing and watering our lawns, should more prudent water engineering solutions be considered for the coming decades?

Water main breaks and repairs are a normal part of the City of Baltimore's operation of its water distribution pipeline system. Sometimes, however, the circumstances and situations surrounding a water main break are much different than normal. Such a situation recently happened when a water main break occurred during the same time and at the same location as a freight train derailment in a tunnel and subsequent chemical fire in the heart of the City. The situations and events challenged the notion that water main repairs are straightforward.

To prevent future blowouts of sections of the 50-year-old pipe, the Providence Water Supply Board decided to evaluate the condition of a main water pipeline. Non-destructive testing (NDT) investigations revealed that certain sections of the pipe were potentially deficient due to corrosion and breakage of the prestressing system. Strengthening of deficient sections was necessary to maintain the pipeline operational. A carbon fiber in-situ lining appeared to be the fastest, least disruptive, and most cost-effective upgrade solution. The specialty concrete repair contractor conducted full-scale tests to validate optimum FRP repair and waterstop termination design. In these tests, after the carbon fiber liner was installed, the prestressing strands of the FRP-strengthened section were cut leaving the FRP to be the only reinforcement. The test pipe was progressively pressurized until failure occurred at approximately 2-1/2 times the pipe service and surge pressures. The full-scale test proved the integrity of the system beyond theoretical prediction and assured the owner that strength was added to the pipe sections. The lightweight, flexible carbon fiber material along with thorough planning helped overcome challenging working conditions and provided a fast and effective upgrade solution.

In 1998, the City of Houston decided to construct an aerial water main crossing in lieu of tunneling across a 13-lane depressed freeway section of U.S. Highway 59, saving approximately $1.5 million in life cycle costs. Several factors that contributed to this decision included the size of the pipe (84-inch diameter), overall maintenance, and the depth that would have been required (approximately 60 to 70 feet) to tunnel under this depressed section of freeway, which is maintained by TxDOT (Texas Department of Transportation). The proposed 84-inch water main is a major component of the City's Surface Water Transmission Program. The overall objective of this program is to convey surface water to regions that are required to convert from well water to surface water. This conversion is mandated by the Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District (HGCSD) to reduce the amount of subsidence in this region.

The reality of renewal design for fully deteriorated sewers is often complex and challenging. This complexity is frequently not properly accommodated in design standards or project specifications. The author maintains that many engineers need better training in pipe renewal design and practice. Training and experience are particularly critical in any pre-project analysis of fully deteriorated sewers. The practice of classifying sewers into various design states often provides a simple lumping and sorting routine that engineers and contractors rely upon to specify renewal designs and techniques. This operation can provide simple, easy-to-understand, wrong answers to complex problems. The author uses the example of a large-diameter interceptor sewer where the application of design theory and practice collided.

The ASCE Pipeline Infrastructure (PINS) Committee formed the Task Committee "Design Guidelines for Pipeline Renewal Systems" during 1998. Prior to 1998 it was apparent that the reality of loadings was altogether different from what design engineers have been using. The PINS Task Committee initiated a research effort evaluating the design methodologies and material performance of renewal methods. Many design procedures were overly conservative while others were insufficient and/or incomplete. With ongoing research, the following parameters were evaluated; 1) soil loadings, 2) hydrostatic buckling, 3) annulus grouting, 4) soil buckling, 5) flexural modulus, 6) flexible/rigid design, 7) ovality, 8) strain, and 9) bending stress. Due to the importance of these parameters and many other issues, it was determined by the PINS Committee that the Task Committee develop a design guideline pamphlet for the designer of pipeline renewal systems. This being very timely in that the ASCE Manual No. 62 was up for review and many of these items were needed for manual review updating.

Experiments have been devised using a geotechnical centrifuge to simulate the loading sequence and possible deterioration mechanisms of a buried rigid sewer pipe and its soil surround, both before and after renovation by lining. The experimental technique allows direct measurement of the deformation and strains induced in a close-fitting model liner pipe due, for example, to the collapse of voids caused by soil erosion prior to renovation, and to the loss of flexural and/or compressive ring stiffness of the host pipe at various stages. Live surface loads can also be applied "on the fly". Principles of the centrifuge modelling technique are described, the overall experimental plan outlined, and preliminary results reported. The relevance of the results to the development of more rational design procedures for flexible, close-fitting sewer liners is also briefly discussed.

An ASCE/PLD 2001 Conference paper by the author discussed available test data, research findings and technical discussions by various groups on the subject of "Fully Deteriorated Design" for rigid pipe rehabilitation by flexible liners. The paper concluded that there is no experimental or theoretical support for the current design method as it would apply to flexible liners of buried rigid pipes. The design equation, appropriated from the design practice for direct burial of fiberglass pipe, is based on a phenomenological model of the soil- pipe-liner structure that is inappropriate for rehabilitation liners in rigid pipes. This paper further argues that, under most realistic field conditions, there will be no earth load transferred to the liner. In addition, in the most unusual and unlikely cases that could produce load transfer (non existent or unstable soil support), the load will produce pure bending stresses and buckling will not be the failure state (as assumed in the current practice). A deflection control design method is proposed for "weak" soils and host pipes that have lost their rigidity.

This paper presents an overview of critical factors/methods used in utility and infrastructure vulnerability assessments, including those required for water utilities under the Bioterrorism Act of 2002. Illustrations from actual vulnerability assessments will be used (non-confidential data only). Typical results will be presented. Lessons learned associated with the efficient and effective performance of vulnerability assessments, as well as implementation of the results will be discussed. Finally, the application of Lessons Learned to current vulnerability assessment and security situations will be presented.

Automated infrastructure surveillance technology has been developed and implemented that integrates and provides management capabilities of surveillance information. A single universal interface allows the display of all monitoring devices within a water agency's inventory to include the management of input from video cameras, motion detectors, acoustic sensors and other like devices. Input is channeled through a control facility allowing Intranet-based access to authorized users at multiple locations. Integrating alarm management systems with the automated surveillance technology can minimize the inefficiencies and associated costs for 24/7 monitoring with security personnel. Automated alarms can be generated immediately allowing suspicious events to be rapidly identified and investigated. Alarm parameters are dictated by the user and can be modified to match needs at-will. Alarms can be distributed simultaneously to multiple destinations via modes including audible alarms, email notification, voice-synthesized telephone calls and wireless handheld devices. Video images of the cause of the alarm are also a useful option. The surveillance technology and the associated alarm management system are compatible with industry standard GIS platforms such as ARCInfo and ARCViews and can also be configured to use industry standard encryption and authentication protocols. This type of technology can be integrated into existing and future surveillance equipment providing the ability for continued use of current and/or future surveillance hardware.

The Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 provided $89 million to the U.S. EPA to improve the security of the nation's water supplies by reducing water system vulnerabilities to terrorist attacks, enhancing water infrastructure security and improving the ability of water purveyors to respond to emergencies. At the time of this writing, grant monies are currently available to "large" water purveyors, defined as agencies serving over 100,000 customers. The Calleguas Municipal Water District (Calleguas) is a water wholesaling agency that provides water to over 500,000 customers in Ventura County, California. As a large water purveyor, Calleguas received a grant from the U.S. EPA to perform a vulnerability assessment of its water system infrastructure. The Calleguas vulnerability assessment project applies Sandia National Laboratories' Risk Assessment Methodology for Water Security (RAM-W) meeting the EPA's project guidelines, while recognizing the unique security characteristics of a water wholesaler and previous actions taken by Calleguas to improve the reliability of its water supply.

Monitoring, control, and communication systems (MCCS) is an essential part of the pipeline installation, management and maintenance programs which typically involve complex tasks during the service life of the pipelines. Also, feedback control system is vital to assure the functionality of the facility. Integrating the MCCS into one versatile unit could reduce the manpower needed for monitoring, decreasing the sources of human errors, and costs associated with maintenance. Such system would inherently improve coordination efforts in response to emergency management needs at times like post disaster (i.e., earthquake, storms etc.) and/or military conflicts, or terrorist attacks. Open Architecture Solution is a concept for MCCS which is based on integration of any form of original signal and any and all forms of communication (i.e., network, wireless, satellite, etc.) to provide feedback to the devices needed for control of the environment. It would eliminate the need for personal entries to make adjustments to equipments and devices especially in hard to reach places or in remote an inaccessible areas. This paper will summarize the areas of potential application of this system, which was originally developed for telecom industry, in pipeline construction/management and will describe the capabilities of this system through past experiences and examples of its use in ongoing projects.

A 72-inch prestressed concrete cylinder pipe water main that provides vital potable water transmission from the Val Vista Treatment Plant to the City of Phoenix was placed at risk due to construction and excavation immediately adjacent. The City of Phoenix engaged the Pressure Pipe Inspection Company of Toronto, Ontario, and Scottsdale, Arizona, to acoustically monitor the pipeline during construction to detect any contact with the pipe, or any cracks in the core caused by excessive external loads. This was accomplished by placing a series of very sensitive hydrophones in the pipeline while it is service to detect the sounds of impact or damage. The hydrophone signal is continuously monitored by patented signal processors in a way that will detect, record, and locate the source of any sounds caused by damage to the pipe. This paper discusses the pipeline, the construction activity risks, and the actions taken to reduce these risks.

While reports about underground utility damages due to excavation mishaps are abound, models for assessing the economic impact of such accidents have not been developed. The effort that is reported in this paper found that the total cost of utility damages are grossly underreported because only the direct costs of the emergency response and of repairing the damage are included. Generally the list of potentially impacted parties comprises not only the contractor, utility and property owners, people in the vicinity of the accidents but all the customer of a disrupted utility. An economic impact study that was conducted at NCSU covered the following parties: (1) municipal services including the fire and police departments, department of public works, and emergency medical services; (2) the utility company that owns the severed line; (3) the stores and businesses that were evacuated; and (4) the residents that were evacuated from the surrounding areas. It was found that the actual cost, without the lost gas and the lawyers' fees, was ten times the reported direct cost. The paper will present this economic model as a basis to justify higher investments in prevention.

Fluor Corp. has made a major breakthrough in a new application of UT-TOFD that enhances ultrasonic examination of thermoplastic, pipeline butt welds. Industry has needed, but has not had the capability to non-destructively characterize, evaluate weld integrity, and detect defects, including porosity and lack of fusion (LOF) or cold welds of plastic pipe in operation. Now, a novel application of Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction (UT-TOFD) in both shop and "operating" field environments provides immediate weld integrity assessments and offers the thermoplastic industry new opportunities to improve pipeline construction, fusion practices, and the capability to monitor integrity of pipeline systems during operation. This method has been tested and proven effective in large-scale field pipeline applications.

The labor intensive construction industry has a very high accident rate. One of the key reasons for this is the exposure of workers to a hazardous environment such as heights, confined narrow spaces, and exposure to health threatening fumes, dust, and noise. Teleoperation, which allows a construction worker to control a mechanical tool from a safe location provides a technical alternative. Because of the need to be competitive on every project-bid, contractors have to be assured that new technologies not only work in the rugged environment of a construction site but that they also reduce cost. This paper will present one example of such a technology, a remotely controlled manipulator that allows the installation of large concrete pipes. It is apparent that eliminating the presence of humans in danger zones makes OSHA regulations mute. The resulting cost savings had three sources: 1) reduction in excavation volume, 2) reduction in material to be backfilled and compacted, and 3) reduction in man-hours. While successful, the field tests also highlighted opportunities for improvements which led to a new development phase.

Pipeline infrastructure practitioners, policy makers, researchers, and engineers have refocused much of their attention on security as the key performance measure. At the same time, research clearly demonstrates that networked infrastructure systems cannot be accurately examined through the narrow lens of a single goal. Recent advances in networks and complexity theory reveal that intradependencies, i.e., system component interconnectedness, may affect system performance unpredictably, rendering the goal of optimal security elusive. Similarly interconnectedness or interdependencies with other infrastructures such as the power grid can have radical and far-reaching effects on pipeline system performance as well. Asset management provides a framework for decision-making with multiple performance measure under risk. This paper and the papers in this session discuss current research to extend the knowledge base on complex infrastructures and strategies, such as asset management, to support these extensions.

Users of infrastructure are heavily dependent upon distribution systems to deliver vital services for electricity, communication, transportation, water supply and waste management. When these fail in the course of a crisis created by a natural hazard, accident, or terrorist act, the crisis becomes magnified. In fact, infrastructure crises often magnify the consequences of the initial events that precipitated them. This paper identifies some of the factors that are contributing to the vulnerability of infrastructure distribution systems during extreme events and ways that can reduce vulnerability, including a discussion of the pros and cons of locating distribution lines underground. The perspective of the users of the services that infrastructure provides is emphasized. Particular reference is made to the impacts of the September 11^th 2001 attacks at the World Trade Center (WTC) and the subsequent rebuilding efforts.

As security of the nation's critical infrastructure systems requires attention, new methods to create all—hazard approaches must be developed. To support them, methods to measure security levels should be improved. Lack of methods to measure risk is an impediment to using risk assessment. Today's risk measures do not embrace the full spectrum of threats, vulnerabilities, or consequences of events. To indicate the status of system security requires merging many categories of information into one indicator. The dimensionality of the problem is high, and in the final analysis, the multi—level, multi—dimensional problem requires a large amount of information. While at present it is not feasible to collect all of the required information, by identifying data items needed enables managers to understand better how to improve security of their systems.

In the U.S. alone, more than 3.8 million miles of underground utility lines exist — conveying water, electricity, gas, telecommunication lines, and wastewater, to and from industries, businesses and homes. Though original design lives were 30–50 years, the average age of a majority of these pipeline assets is over 75 years old. Many of these systems are vulnerable to damage and malfunctioning due to aging, excessive demand, misuse, exposure, mismanagement and neglect. Historically, rehabilitation of these underground assets has been prompted primarily by repairing failures rather than preventing them. Typically, such programs used traditional materials and processes and primarily addressed immediate needs, rather than long term needs. Using traditional materials and systems does not always deliver improved performance in current settings and sustained performance in case of emergencies. This paper discusses some recent research efforts in utilizing asset management models for linking the competing objectives in underground infrastructure renewal. The issues discussed herein include condition assessment, vulnerability modeling and lifecycle analysis, and pipeline valuation.

Uses of dredged materials for the creation or restoration of wetlands in a manmade reservoir have been practiced around the country. Reservoir dredging is to remove materials from an undesirable location and to place them at in an acceptable location. The simplest dredging process known as agitation dredging involves disturbing bed materials by forcing them into suspension, after which they will be moved by natural water flow for depositing elsewhere. Pipelines are commonly used to transport dislodged and suspended bed materials to the deposit location. This study conducts the investigation using the criterion of pipeline selection for determining the deposit location of dredged materials by geographic information system (GIS). Pipeline length was used as one of the evaluation criteria developed using the ArcView GIS for the best site selection for sediment deposit. Multicriteria decision analysis techniques were incorporated into GIS to allow for the development of the model that produced standardized commensurate map layers. The maximum score and score range procedures were used for linear scale transformation. It was introduced to transform input data into commensurate criterion maps. The minimum value map is subtracted from the maximum value map to obtain the range map layer. The raw data map is then subtracted from the maximum value map to obtain the maximum difference map that is then divided by the range map for the minimization of the linear scale transformation. Finally, the pairwise comparison method was used to determine the criteria weights by normalizing the eigenvector associated with the maximum eigenvalue of the ratio matrix. Based on statistical and heuristic theory, the method can precisely select the appropriate level of importance for each criterion. The model was applied to the dredging program at Charles Mill Lake of Ohio. Out of the six evaluation criteria, pipe length was ranked the second based on the pairwise comparison selection used.

Computer models that predict the hydraulic performance of a distribution system are powerful tools that can be used to help utilities make decisions about future improvements to their water systems. In 1999, the City of Elkhart initiated a project to take the existing model of their distribution network and develop a planning-level model that would enable capital improvements planning. Developing a fully calibrated network model is a multi-step process. In this project, the City of Elkhart proceeded with development of a planning-level model; the work necessary to achieve a fully calibrated model has not been completed and is planned as a future project. The purpose of this paper is to present an innovative approach to allocating water demands within the model network. This demand allocation process, while imperfect, was successful enough to allow Elkhart to proceed with planning-level decisions prior to developing a fully calibrated model.

Geographic information system (GIS) technology has been utilized in the utility sector for over 25 years. Early on, utility companies used GIS to visualize and overlay environmental and facility data and perform simple and complex spatial queries. This technology primarily comprised intelligent maps with limited facility and attribute data available for query and display. Since then, GIS, along with the relational database management system (RDBMS), has evolved not only as a spatial analysis tool, but also as a central repository for facility, integrity, and compliance data. In response to a few highly publicized pipeline accidents, the U.S. Department of Transportation Office of Pipeline Safety (DOT OPS) has proposed new pipeline integrity management regulations. In January 2002, the OPS issued the Notice of Proposed Rule Making (NOPR), indicating the release of these regulations by the end of December 2002.

The primary purpose of this paper is to explain the GIS applications in pipeline industry to produce cost-effective results. A Geographic Information System (GIS) can be termed as a computer program which helps to store, retrieve, analyze and display cartographic data. By providing the comprehensive information about the technical aspects of GIS, efforts have been made to cover the challenging parameters of GIS applications in the industry. The integration of GIS with existing technologies for a cost effective solutions is discussed in this paper, this explores the functional benefits of GIS applications.

Pressure transients commonly occur in water pipeline systems and can sometimes cause operational problems or system failure. Transient analyses are needed during system design to understand the potential magnitude of pressure transients and, if necessary, to determine how they should be adequately controlled. A transient hydraulic analysis computer program is required to develop pressure transient control strategies. There are numerous equipment and operational alternatives available for hydraulic engineers to consider when developing a transient control strategy. The best alternative typically is a function of the characteristics and transient constraints of the system.

Since the introduction of computers, hydraulic analysis models and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have been evolving and becoming more powerful. In recent years, the two technologies have become more highly integrated than ever as each generation of new software makes this integration easier. Explaining how modeling and GIS interact is lot like the story of the blind men trying to explain what an elephant looks like. There is no single correct way to link models with GIS. This paper will put into perspective the ways in which modeling and GIS can work together and discuss some issues that users must consider in making the best use of both technologies.

Prior to the publication of the Hazen Williams Formula in 1905 by Gardner Williams and Allen Hazen there did not seem to be a widely accepted hydraulic formula which provided for calculating head loss due to the friction of water flowing in pipes. Edmond B. Weston states in his book "About twenty years ago when the author commenced to make a practical application of hydraulic formulas, he was unable to find one for calculating the loss of head due to friction of water flowing in pipes, that he had not heard criticized more or less unfavorably by hydraulic engineers." Weston then derived an empirical formula for use in very smooth pipe such as lead and brass and concluded from data that the Darcy formula was adequate for new cast iron pipe. Old cast iron pipe was another problem. Weston finally came up with a set of multipliers that could be applied to Darcy's formula to calculate head loss due to friction in old cast iron pipe.

The rainfall-runoff process in urban areas is primarily affected by the anthropogenic factors such as drainage facilities, local alternation of topography and land use. The surface runoff in urban area is usually collected by the inlets and drained to sewer systems. When the runoff discharge exceeds the drainage capacity, the sewer system is not always able to carry all the runoff due to the limited capacity of the inlet or conduit. As a result, inundation takes place. The excess water, including the rainfall excess and the overflow from surcharged manholes, becomes overland runoff flowing on the surface toward lowlands until it reaches other under-capacity drainage inlets. A dynamic model is developed for simulating the complex hydraulic process in urban areas. The model is verified by the Typhoon Xangsane event in Nov. 2000, which caused serious inundation in the Mucha area of Taipei City, and applied for simulating the Typhoon Nari event in Sep. 2001, which resulted in the half area of Downtown Taipei being flooded. Comparing to the flood extents investigated by the Taipei City Government, the results demonstrate that the inundated zones can be well simulated by the proposed model. It reveals that the dynamic urban inundation model is suitable for the flood simulation of an urban area under high intensity of rainfall.

Risk is inherent in all public works. It cannot be eliminated but it can certainly be minimized through recognizing, assessing and apportioning it in an objective and structured manner. The cost of risk can similarly be understood and managed. Working underground introduces a new dimension in risk, especially when using some of the trenchless technologies where it is not possible to see exactly what is going on and where the actual works are not accessible to people. This is often considered to be an increase in risk because it is relatively unknown, but in fact it is merely a different risk from that associated with open trench working, not necessarily a greater risk.

This paper presents the results of a research program sponsored by the PCCP Users Group on the risk of failure of prestressed concrete cylinder pipe with broken wires subjected to the combined effects of pipe and fluid weights, earth load and internal pressure. As a part of this research work, we performed nonlinear finite-element analysis of PCCP with broken wires subjected to the combined effects of internal pressure, pipe and fluid weights and earth loads, modeling the cracking process and the interlocking behavior of cracked concrete core. We also performed field investigation of the condition of pipes outside of the broken wire zone and hydrostatic pressure testing of pipes with broken wires. Based on the results of the finite-element analyses, hydrostatic pressure tests and field investigation of PCCP with broken wires, we have developed risk curves expressed in terms of pressures versus the number of broken wires corresponding to serviceability, damage and strength limit states, and repair priorities of PCCP with broken wires.

A safety factor principle is not sufficient alone to analyze safety reserves in buried pipes because of the variation of the phenomena acting on the behavior of the pipe sewers. Information management systems and expert systems help asset managers make the most out form available information. An integrated decision support system can boost the efficient use of existing resources even further, as it integrates all of the information involved in a decision-making process. Such integration serves to assess the condition of public services according to a range of recognized criteria (as well as a community's particular characteristics), optimizes the regular maintenance work and extends the service life of facilities at the lowest cost possible. In this paper a semi-probabilistic approach to diagnose urban sewers is detailed. This approach is divided in two parts. The first one is based on a simplified probabilistic method, it concerns only the mechanical behavior of the pipe. The second part of the method is based on the establishing rules to integrate the impact of the pipe behavior on its environment. This method will permit to establish a rational diagnosis of urban sewers towards a sustainable development.

Tokyo Gas has been supplying gas to 9 million customers in the Tokyo metropolitan area in Japan since 1885, using 45,000 km of distribution pipelines. One of the old materials for the low pressure distribution pipelines is gray cast iron (GCI) pipe, which was used for construction until the 1970s, often break and cause gas leakage due to the lack of ductility; therefore, these GCI pipelines have a potential risk. To reduce the risk induced by breaks in GCI pipes and improve the safety level, Tokyo Gas (TG) has been conducting a program to repair or replace the aged-GCI pipes with liners or polyethylene pipes. In urban areas, however, measures such as repair or replacement are highly time- and cost-consuming, which is against the trend in the gas industry. Therefore, in order to reduce the risk induced by breaks in GCI pipes with minimum cost, TG has been developing a method for assessing the risk of GCI pipes. Presented in this paper is a revised method to assess the risk of GCI pipes by accurately evaluating the likelihood of breaks and the consequences induced by the gas leakage with detailed information on the environment where the pipe is buried.

Greenville Water System (GWS) has a 27-mile, 72-inch transmission main to convey treated water to its distribution system. A major portion of this transmission main consists of prestressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) manufactured with Class IV prestressing wire that has experienced a high incidence of breaks throughout GWS' system. To provide reliability of service, GWS implemented a program to parallel 11 miles of the existing main. Design challenges included an assessment of pipeline integrity, determination of the optimum separation distance between pipelines, material selection, interconnections for maximum service reliability, and acquisition of permits and rights-of-way. Construction challenges included phased design and construction, varied terrain, deep open cuts, parallel high-voltage power lines, river crossing, road and railroad crossings, contaminated groundwater, and stringent scheduling and sequencing requirements. The construction cost for the parallel transmission main and related appurtenances was approximately $22 million.

Design and construction of the Water Transmission Main is a portion of a project that will provide new water treatment capacity for the County of Henrico, Virginia. Henrico County currently purchases all of its treated water from the City of Richmond, Virginia. Initially, the project will provide an average of 208 million liters (55 million gallons) of water per day. The County of Henrico, Virginia Water Transmission Main, Phases I and II are elements of the Water Treatment and Transmission Project. Overall, the project contains, one management element, two design elements (treatment plant design and transmission system design) and twelve (12) construction elements (raw water pump station foundation and screen structure; raw water transmission main, Phases A, B, C and D; water treatment plant; water transmission main Phases 1A, 1B, 1C; water transmission main tunnels [5 tunnels]. Glen Allen Water System Improvements Project B; and Peyton Street Pressure Reducing Station). The Water Transmission Main, Phase I contains 7,480m (24,541 LF) of 137-cm (54-in.) pipe and 2,119m (6,951 LF) of 122-cm pipe (48-in. pipe) in its as constructed alignment. The transmission main will convey water from the Water Treatment Plant into the existing water distribution system. The project began in 1990 with approximately 90% of the project being constructed between 1999 and 2003. Total cost of the entire project is approximately $160 million.

Underground structure, such as pipe, suffer buoyancy of groundwater and have risk to be uplifted. To avoid uplifting, countermeasure must be considered. Most case, pipeline was buried with deep cover of depth. The weight of soil just above pipe can be considered as counter weight against uplifting. For larger diameter pipe, deeper cover of depth is required. In Japan, construction cost is very expensive. These days, reduction of construction cost is one of the most important issues for Japan's infrastructure. To reduce construction cost, many construction methods have been proposed. To reduce amount of excavation is one of the solution. For pipeline, amount of excavation become very large for whole site. Burying pipe with shallower cover can cut construction cost. Even small excavation for single section, it becomes very large for whole construction area.

The live loads may significantly affect the performance of buried pipe, particularly under shallow burial. Response of the buried pipe under vehicle loads is investigated here using three-dimensional finite element analysis. The analysis is conducted using the finite element program ANSYS. The study revealed that the influence of pipe on stress due to vehicle load is insignificant if the burial depth is 1.5 times the diameter. Therefore classical theory can be used to calculate the stress on top of the pipe. However, for pipe buried at a depth of 0.5 times the diameter, pipe-soil interaction analysis should be performed to obtain the stresses. It is also revealed that stress on pipe due to any wheel load of a truck is not affected by the other wheel. Ratio of the pipe to soil modulus appeared to affect the soil-pipe interaction for pipe at shallow burial. ASCE 1993 standard provides a reasonably conservative estimate of the effects of live load. However, the code does not include the effect of the material modulus.

In May of 2000 the City of Houston implemented the Accelerated Surface Water Transmission Program (ASWTP), a $140 million program consisting of 24 water line projects ranging in diameter from 84-inches to 30-inches. These projects are on an accelerated schedule and are to be complete and in service by May 31, 2003. One project begins in an industrial area, approximately 4,500 linear feet of the project is along a road heavily traveled by eighteen-wheelers. The next 1,500 linear feet of water line is located in a commercial area with high volumes of traffic. The project terminates in a residential area. Approximately 2,000 linear feet of water line construction will be in front of residential homes. Maintaining local access for residents and business owners as well as minimizing the impact to the general public were critical design issues.

Fourteen miles (22.5 Km) of Reinforced Concrete Cylinder Pipe (RCCP) mainlines for the Pima-Maricopa Irrigation Project (P-MIP) were designed, manufactured, and constructed between 1998 and 2002. The pipe manufacturer designed the P-MIP RCCP pipelines in conformance with the procedures presented in Chapter 7 of American Water Works Association (AWWA) Manual M9 and additional procedures presented in this paper. The history and evolution of the semi-empirical and rational design procedures used by pipe manufacturers and agencies between 1919 and 1974 are presented and discussed. The performance record of pipelines designed in conformance with these procedures is excellent. The current AWWA M9 RCCP design procedure for resisting flexural and axial stresses from combinations of internal pressure and external load conditions, which evolved from the earlier procedures, has been adopted by the manufacturers and users of RCCP. Radial tension and shear (diagonal tension) analysis procedures with two design examples are presented. Using the M9 design procedure with the minimum wall thicknesses listed in the AWWA C300 RCCP standard is adequate for normal loading conditions. Calculating the shear (diagonal tension) in the pipe wall and resulting stresses and radial tension strength is useful in determining the required wall thickness and compressive strength of the pipe for special loading conditions, such as high earth cover loads. Recommendations for enhancements to the current M9 design procedures for RCCP are presented and discussed.

Currently, standard blocking design for thrust restraint of small diameter distribution main in the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (WSSC) service area is based on a design pressure of 250 pounds per sq. inch (psi), which consists of working pressure and surge pressure allowance. The surge pressure allowance, based on American Water Works Association (AWWA) 1977, ANSI/AWWA Standard C 101-67, is defined at 100 psi to 120 psi for water main of 4 to 16 inches. Literature search indicated that studies on surge pressures in small main of these sizes are lacking. It was conjectured that the actual surge pressures occurring in small diameter distribution main might be lower. This study attempts to evaluate the magnitude of surge pressures that might occur in distribution main of 16 inches and smaller and how it may affect the current WSSC criteria for surge pressure allowances for thrust restraint design. Attempts were made to develop a computerized surge model representative of the entire distribution system. However, it became extremely difficult and impractical to develop such a model that could simulate surge pressures in small diameter main within an extensive and complex water distribution system. Hence, the author opted to determine if there are any system operational events that might produce surge pressures comparable to those currently adopted by the WSSC. Several scenarios that could possibly produce high surge pressures were evaluated, including rapid closure of fire hydrants and operation of water pumps on fire trucks during fire rescue. Computer modeling was performed to study the impacts of these operational events with a simplified distribution system configuration. Local fire rescue personnel were consulted to obtain information used for the analysis. From this study, it was concluded that the predicted surge pressures could be comparable to the standard surge pressure allowances currently specified by WSSC under the operating conditions of its water distribution system. Based on these findings, the author has concluded that the current criteria for standard surge pressure allowances, in accordance with AWWA C101-67, should remain to be used for thrust restraint design of small diameter distribution main for the WSSC water distribution system. Note: There is an erratum at the end of the PDF.

The French National project of research and experimentation named RERAU (Rehabilitation of Urban Network Sewers) has developed a design method for non-circular linings subject to groundwater pressure. The method is based on an analytical approach and gives a formula, recently obtained by O. Thepot, for the buckling pressure of a close-fit non-circular lining subject to external water pressure (with initial annular gap). The method puts the liners into two categories according to their shapes: "critical linings" that are liable to buckle but where the lobe remains localized and "sub-critical linings" that do not buckle but where the lobe may extend to the entire lining. This paper presents the complete analytical method for the critical linings.

SIMSEWER is an interactive computer simulation software package that allows the user to try his/her skills in managing a network of buried pipes. The objective of this software is to introduce the user to the concepts of infrastructure management, engineering economics and various techniques of sewer rehabilitation. The program enables the user to develop his/her management strategy for a simulated trunk sewer network and evaluate its effectiveness using the following performance parameters: infrastructure deficit (cost difference required to upgrade infrastructure to its highest condition rating); overall condition of the system; and, financial status. The paper presents the methodology and key components of SIMSEWER including operating rules, databases, user's interface and reporting features. Developed to serve the needs of engineering students as well as practitioners, it can use for the analysis of "what-if" scenarios for different economic conditions, maintenance rates and deterioration rates for evaluating the effectiveness of competing management approaches.

Sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs) are a nationwide problem caused by aging infrastructure. Increased flows from a growing user base, coupled with the introduction of rain water and groundwater through leaky joints and system breaks, are the cause of SSOs. The City of St. Petersburg's original sanitary sewer system was constructed in 1933, with most of the remaining portion built between 1950 and 1962. The system is divided into four service areas designated as: Northwest (NW), Northeast (NE), Southwest (SW), and Southeast (SE). Each of these service areas has a wastewater reclamation facility associated with the system. Combined, these areas include approximately 19,400 manholes, 900 miles of collector sewer, 470 miles of sewer lateral, 77 lift stations, and 49 miles of force main. Significant rain events and a hurricane in 1995 accentuated the SSO problem within the City system. In response to this situation, the State of Florida served the City of St. Petersburg with a consent order, which required a complete analysis of the sanitary sewer system and implementation of a master plan for improvements. The City conducted an evaluation of its sanitary sewer system, and the results were presented in a report entitled "Sewer System Evaluation and Management Program" (SSEMP) (March, 1998). Several significant rehabilitation, maintenance, and capital improvement projects were identified in this evaluation to prevent SSOs during storm events and to comply with the State's consent order. The topic of this paper is one of the projects recommended for immediate implementation in the SSEMP report. This project will be implemented in the NW service area.

In June 2000, the Charles County Department of Public Works enlisted KCI Technologies, Inc., to design plans for relocating the effluent outfall at the Cliffton on the Potomac Wastewater Treatment Facility, in Newburg, MD. The outfall, visible at low tide on the shores of the Potomac River, was discharging treated effluent onto the beach. Charles County initiated the project in partnership with the Maryland Department of the Environment (MDE) to meet National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permitting requirements. The challenge of this task involved relocating the existing outfall approximately 335 meters (1,100 LF) offshore, to a minimum submerged depth of 11 meters (36 ft) below mean low tide, in an effort to minimize potential impacts on adjacent oyster bars. Upon review of the site assessment, an evaluation of existing conditions and consideration of environmental impacts, the use of trenchless technology was deemed the most appropriate construction approach for this undertaking. In addressing the advantages and challenges of trenchless technology, the authors review the project team's field investigations, environmental assessments, preliminary design concepts, final design details, and construction inspections, focusing on the project's unique environmental issues and the importance of underwater inspections.

The existing four-lane Metropolitan District Commission (MDC) roadway known as Fresh Pond Parkway was originally constructed in the early 1950's. It is a major commuter artery into Cambridge and Boston. Traffic counts average in excess of 1,200 to 2,000 vehicles per hour and 55,000 to 60,000 vehicles per day. The original Parkway had been a continuing safety concern for vehicles and pedestrians. The travel lanes were exceedingly wide and poorly defined. The area was poorly lit and had minimum vegetation. Therefore, the MDC developed plans to transform this stretch of roadway into a safe multi purpose and environmentally appealing parkway. At the same time, the City of Cambridge Department of Public Works (DPW) and the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) planned a major sewer separation project in the Parkway. The sewer separation project was intended to reduce combined sewer overflow discharges, protect the City's drinking water supply at Fresh Pond, and adhere to Massachusetts' stormwater management guidelines.

Pipelines that are installed in a marine environment are a unique case due to the external conditions they have to endure. The actual use of the pipeline and the design required for its use are small in scale compared to the design required to resist the active marine forces and environment. The following will address the design parameters, dynamic forces, installation requirements/techniques and pipe material selection for a successful overall design to ensure the pipeline survives its design life.

Making money in the new market conditions requires a whole new paradigm. Investing in dedicated fiber conduits in open cut ditches to bridge the last mile to solve the fiber glut problem will not work. The very governmental, commercial, and residential end users who are craving for true broadband coming into their premises already have sanitary sewers, storm drains, waterlines, and natural gas lines reaching their premises to meet their needs. The fat pipe to carry infinite voice/video/data from multiple providers could be housed in these utilities by forming creative business partnerships among optical fiber owners, service providers, utility pipe owners, and vendors. Municipalities could even take the lead in this new paradigm, given they own and manage these underground assets for the public. By municipalities taking the initiatives for building the last mile fiber, they could meet the needs of FTTH/FTTB, renovation of their aging pipeline infrastructure, and improved sensing, surveillance, and security of vital lifelines and treatment plants.

Today's pipeline organizations are faced with an aging pipeline infrastructure, increased regulatory requirements, escalating costs, greater demand for service, and tighter budgets for improvement projects. In an effort to ameliorate these realities, the organizations are re-assessing their core competencies that are relevant to their corporate mission and necessary to serving their customers in the most cost effective manner while maintaining service quality and regulatory compliance. This paper discusses how using third-party program/construction management effectively controls costs for owners or developers throughout the project life cycle. The authors begin by defining third-party program/construction management and describing instances when an owner or developer should consider this management system. The paper describes the role of third-party program/construction management in each stage of the project life cycle. The value delivered to owners and developers from employing this management approach is shared from the authors' first-hand experience with pipeline inspection, rehabilitation, and construction. The paper provides owners, developers, engineers, and contractors a framework for a successful third-party program/construction management relationship.

Although using sewers as an avenue for the installation of Fiber Optic Cabling is a relatively old concept, there have been several major technological advances in the installation process over the past year. This paper discusses the installation of conduits using a robotically controlled process. The robotic installation process is further enhanced by the use of a cured-in-place lining rehabilitation system, of the host pipe, during placement of the fiber conduit. When the installation has been completed, the host infrastructure has been given a new life and the need to perform any disruptive excavation for the installation of the telecommunication cabling minimized.

The United States is a major player in the world economy. By being innovative in a free enterprise environment, the country is able to stay competitive and provide goods and services to its citizens at a remarkable value. While the telecommunications industry worldwide has been in a slump for the past two years, there is a pent-up demand for more efficient and quicker data transmission, which requires the last mile of fiber to be constructed in our cities. Contractors, engineers, and telecom companies understand the needs of the public, and are being creative to engineer, finance and construct a system that will connect all users to the highest speed technology available. There are many options available, and in most cases a variety of technologies can be used to provide services at the lowest cost, and in the quickest time interval.

Pipeline inspection by CCTV is used throughout the world for many reasons. It is typically used to locate and quantify pipeline defects, to verify proper installation of new pipe and to serve as pre- and post video documentation for rehabilitation projects. CCTV has been in use for approximately 35 years. In those 35 years, the capabilities and sophistication of the equipment in use have evolved to remarkable levels. It is reasonable to assume further improvements will continue to reach the marketplace. In 1980 the Water Research Centre (WRc) in Swindon, England, developed a system for encoding pipeline defects using CCTV. The WRc system was quickly adopted throughout most of Europe as the de facto standard for coding defects. It has been modified and updated in Europe to accommodate varying languages and industry practices. Modifications notwithstanding, it is still the WRc codes that are the standard in most of Europe.

As more and more utilities throughout the United States adopt and implement the Pipeline Assessment and Certification Program (PACP), case studies can now be developed to demonstrate how PACP can be initiated within a utility. Various implementations of PACP are explored including retrofitting of existing TV inspection data, use of PACP to describe conditions found during new inspections, mapping of PACP data, and exchange of PACP data with various software programs.

The Aqua Zoom camera survey is used more and more by Utilities as a cost-effective approach to evaluate entire collection systems quickly. The findings from the Aqua Zoom survey will reveal `true' operating and structural system conditions, help prioritize pipes requiring more detailed and comprehensive inspection and identify manholes requiring rehabilitation. The Aqua Zoom camera survey does not replace, but rather helps to prioritize the need for in-line conventional CCTV or other particular investigative tools like the Sewer Scanning Evaluation Technology (SSET).

The past 100 years have seen dramatic shifts in pipeline materials, methods, and maintenance. We have learned to build more than 50% of our pipelines out of various plastics. And this trend is likely to continue in the coming decade. We have also learned new tools of trenchless technology for new pipe installation and for rehabilitation of aging lines. We are beginning to share the same pipes for multiple functions returning to what we tried and failed in French sewers 100 years ago having perfected our craft to serve us better. When it comes to pipe inspection, we tried to use workers, black and white cameras, and now higher resolution imaging. This paper provides some bold predictions of what the future holds for us all in the pipeline market on what materials, methods, and maintenance techniques will have a tough road ahead while which new ones will walk the park reaching new heights. This paper also highlights the details of the kinds of new futuristic technologies that will likely emerge to exert profound influence in the way we do business. Those engineers, contractors, city officials, regulatory agencies, and researchers looking for the vision on how the story of pipelines would unfold in the coming decades will find this paper valuable.

In the years to come and even now, the EPA is and will be mandating the cleaning of large diameter sewers across the United States. These sewers have primarily been constructed along creeks, rivers and wetlands. Access to these sewer lines by means of conventional cleaning methods is becoming more difficult due to wetland restrictions and costs involved in building roads into these areas where permitted. In 1998, Montgomery Watson had approximately 15,000 linear feet of large diameter pipe in Fulton County, Georgia along the Chattahoochee River in the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area. Montgomery Watson had long suspected that there were severe I&I problems in this stretch of pipe. So, NT&C was contacted by Montgomery Watson and asked to take on the project using our patent-pending Jigawon Cleaning method. This method of cleaning utilizes a flow restricting device that used the existing sewer flow to create turbulence within the pipe, causing the material to be put into suspension and moved downstream where it is removed and taken to the appointed debris disposal site. Using this method, we were able to clean the system with access to only several manholes throughout the system.

The City of Baltimore, Maryland has prepared and implemented an Emergency Response Plan for sanitary sewer overflows (SSO's) from the City's wastewater collection system. Background information relevant to the development of this plan is provided, along with a description of the development approach and sections of the plan.

The District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority, Department of Sewer Services operates a vast collection system including more than 1800 miles of sewers that serve the citizens of the District and surrounding jurisdictions in the states of Maryland and Virginia. The Department operates 9 Sanitary Pumping Stations, 15 Storm Water Pumping Stations, the Northeast Boundary Swirl Facility, 8 Fabridam sites and a host of ancillary facilities in support of the Department and Authority's mission. The purpose of Wireless SCADA Demonstration is to provide a communication link between the Storm Water stations and the Operator's booth (command center) at Main Pumping Station.

As higher levels of water treatment, such as microfiltration and reverse osmosis, continue to become the norm in the water industry, pressure transients generated by the operation of some of these processes impact the facilities and associated pipelines and distribution systems. This paper will describe the transient pressures generated by microfiltration (MF) systems that rely on system pressure for their operation. It will also address some of the problems associated with the operation of MF systems. For example, the rapid opening and closing of flow control valves under normal, backwash, and emergency operations can generate potentially damaging high and low transient pressures.

The infrastructure, especially pipelines, is the most expensive component of a water supply system. In the US, significant funding will be needed in rebuilding, repairing, or replacing its aging water supply pipelines. Without proper and timely maintenance of the infrastructure, the incidence of leaks and main breaks will significantly increase and water quality can deteriorate. In the past two decades, the Awwa Research Foundation (AwwaRF) has been extensively funding research activities related to pipelines. This paper provides an overview on pipeline-related research projects funded by AwwaRF from 1992 to present. During this period, 32 projects have been successfully finished. Final reports, manuals, and software packages have been provided to the water community. Currently, there are 20 on-going projects in this area. Total amount of funding for pipeline-related research in the past 10 years has been approximately $17.5 million. By conducting utility surveys and sponsoring expert panel workshops, AwwaRF continues to identify the research needs of the water industry. Ten pipeline-related research projects are being considered for funding opportunities in 2003. By funding research and providing valuable research knowledge to the drinking water community, AwwaRF has been advancing the science of water to improve the quality of life.

This paper outlines the conceptual context for a comprehensive approach to pipeline security and describes the research and deployment programs conducted by CERF that provide three major components of this context: (1) Guidelines for critical infrastructure protection and security; (2) Technology development and performance verification; and (3) Evolving approaches to construction and maintenance. The work of CERF/IIEC in these areas encompasses policy studies, workshop facilitation, technology testing and demonstration, and scenario studies. The paper will provide an overview of all of these areas, but will employ a focus on the issues surrounding critical infrastructure protection as a framework on which to discuss these other areas.

Research on issues related to wastewater collection system infrastructure (including sewers) sponsored by the Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF) has increased over the past five years as the industry began focusing more attention on these underground assets and their role in wet and dry weather related flows as it impacts water quality, public health and ecosystems. WERF has 12 completed and ongoing research projects valued at over $1.9 million in this area. Additional research needs have also been identified for the near and long-term future by WERF Subscribers and from ongoing research. This paper provides an overview of WERF, presents highlights of selected projects, and identifies potential areas for future research.

The demand for new buried utilities is growing with new construction, reconstruction, and the growth of the subsurface infrastructure worldwide. As a result, contractors are busy digging and trenching to bury new pipes. Because the machinery needed for placing the new utilities underground, such as backhoe excavators, trenchers, augers, drills, and plows, don't "feel" when they are getting close to already buried object, utilities are easily damaged. Despite great efforts in locating existing utilities before a contractor is allowed to dig, accidents occur in great numbers. The core idea of the concept presented in this paper is to provide the equipment operator with his own system that alerts him of the danger rather than to depend on the hand-held approach alone. A sensing platform, operating like a subsurface "X-ray", has been attached directly to the machinery, hence providing the operator an opportunity to "see" and be warned when the machine tool gets close to an existing utility. This paper will not only present the results of initial field tests but more importantly the results of an effort in integrating the EMI with a GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar) and some exciting applications for the future.

The need for utility lines with less distraction to the surface increased the demand for trenchless excavation methods. Today, trenchless technologies are one of the fastest growing utility installation techniques in the construction industry. Their demand is on a continuous rise and newer technology is emerging and is being used. Trenchless methods can be classified under three main categories which are new pipeline installation, pipeline replacement; and pipeline renovation. This research studies the auger boring technique and evaluates the construction factors that affect project productivity. Auger boring is a process that involves a large number of factors that need to be considered for productivity prediction and improvement. This research utilized two simulation techniques to simulate the auger boring process and evaluate the productivity of auger boring systems. It studied the effect of various bore length on project productivity and cost as well. The two simulation models were developed using MicroCYCLONE and Arena. Data was collected using a questionnaire that was sent to a number of auger boring contractors in the Midwest. This paper identifies the factors that affect the productivity of auger boring machines and explain the development of the simulation models. Furthermore, the results of the simulation models were analyzed and compared.

Many agencies and consulting engineers are beginning to look for alternatives to what have become traditional trenchless methods. In some cases utility owners and their consultants are considering the use of rigid pipe to replace their existing underground water and sewer pipe. This presentation will provide an overview of the Tenbusch Insertion Method one of the newest technologies in the trenchless replacement of existing pipe. This overview will cover the technology and how it works, along with a discussion of different job conditions and the different pipe materials that can be used. This new technology replaces the existing pipe with a new-segmented Vitrified Clay Pipe (VCP), Centrifugally Cast Fiberglass Reinforced Polyester Mortar (CCFRPM), Steel, Ductile Iron (DI), or Polymer Concrete (PC) jacking pipes. The existing pipe is cracked and pushed away from the new pipe being installed by the lead assembly. The segmented pipe is simultaneously pushed into place by the main jack. This method allows for the lead assembly to be advanced through the existing pipe independently of the advance of the new pipe column. The new pipe may be the same size or larger than the existing pipe.

The evaluation of cement mortar coatings on prestressed concrete cylinder pipes (PCCP) may include such techniques as petrographic examination, material testing, and environmental testing of soil and groundwater. Petrographic analysis includes a microscopic examination of polished and thin sections, and in some cases, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDXS). Material testing includes the evaluation of absorption, density, and chloride content of the mortar coatings. Testing of groundwater and soil are used to establish the level of corrosivity of the environment and to identify the need for additional protective measures. This paper discusses mechanisms of mortar coating degradation in aggressive environments that may render the coating ineffective for protecting the prestressing wires against corrosion. Deterioration may involve the chemical alteration or transformation of the cement paste, due to loss of mortar alkalinity, or expansive reactions within the cement paste, and corrosion of the prestressing steel. The impact of chloride ion permeation on the corrosion rate of embedded steel is also discussed.

The testing programs were developed to evaluate the performance of coating, lining and grouting materials used in the rehabilitation of wastewater facilities and to quantify the infiltration at pipe joints using a combination of full scale and laboratory tests. For the coating/lining testing program, special testing chambers are available to verify the applicability of various coating materials to concrete pipe under a hydrostatic pressure of 105 kPa (15 psi). To quantify the bonding strength between the coatings and substrates (concrete and clay bricks) several ASTM/CIGMAT test methods are being used. A control test with Holidays has been developed to quantify the chemical resistance of coated materials to acidic environment. Based on the test results, it will be possible to develop relationships and quantify the effectiveness of various coating/lining materials. A combination of grout, grouted sand and model tests are being used to evaluate grouts for leak control at pipe/manhole joints, service connections and cracks. Grouts are being characterized using the working, physical, mechanical and durability properties.

A 24-inch diameter natural gas pipeline traversed the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta in 2001 and included three HDD crossings of elevated rivers or sloughs. Crossing lengths varied from 1400 to 1800 feet. Typical profiles provided for 75 feet of cover beneath the channel bottom resulting in total depths of about 100 feet beneath the entry and exit points. Each crossing was installed on the first try while injecting cement grout through the reamer during pullback. The cement grout was specifically designed for HDD applications to provide extended cyclic pumpability, resistance to flash setting, and delayed hydration. This paper discusses the components of the cement mix design as well as the procedures used during installation.

Due to the accelerated implementation of "the development strategy of the western regions" in China since 1998, pipeline designers have recognized the need to utilize specific construction methods when installing transmission pipelines due to the poor soil conditions. The climate in western China is typically dry, with low rainfall amounts and high evaporation rates. In addition, the seasonal precipitation distribution is extremely uneven, with most of the rainfall occurring in the spring. The predominant soil types in the region are soft clay, mixed-filled clay, red earth, karst, and mucky peat. When these soil types absorb water, such as during the spring, they can become unstable. Therefore, it is of great importance to utilize specific construction methods when installing transmission pipelines in this region. In this paper, the soil types that are typically found in western China are described, as well as the reasons for the routine pipeline failures that occur in them. Specific construction methods, such as installing various soil materials in the trench subgrade, are then introduced. Finally, a case study is presented which demonstrates that specific construction methods performed during pipeline construction can improve a pipeline's reliability and functionality.

It is important for concrete pipe to have an adequate bedding layer with quality soil material to provide the best support condition for the pipe. Having a good bedding condition reduces the required strength of the concrete pipe, ensures a proper performance level, and long service life. Traditionally, concrete pipe has been bedded with a variety of soil types, with granular soil being the most commonly used. The use of Controlled Low-Strength Material (CLSM) as a concrete pipe bedding material has become more common in recent years, particularly for pipe installations where there is inadequate space for proper trenching, excavating, and bedding, or for situations where speed of installation is a primary concern. To prevent the design engineer from having to make uncertain assumptions about what actual bedding factors are for CLSM bedding, the purpose of this paper is to suggest a range of bedding factors for use with concrete pipe. This was accomplished by the use of a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) software program developed by the American Concrete Pipe Association (ACPA) called Soil-Pipe Interaction and Design Analysis (SPIDA) (5). The SPIDA finite element mesh provides an accurate picture of installed soil-pipe interaction forces, without having to conduct expensive field-testing. Typical SPIDA output results provide a summary of pipe ultimate thrusts and moments at the pipe invert, springline, and crown for various loading conditions and trench configurations that can be used to calculate the bedding factor.

The elastic continuum theory for the soil-pipe interaction analysis was used to develop simplified equations for buried pipe design. The hoop and bending components of pipe deflections from the continuum solution were studied extensively, along with a simplified equation proposed by McGrath in 1998. A parametric study was performed to determine the influence of different soil and pipe parameters on the soil-pipe interaction for deflection calculations. Based on the study, two separate simplified equations were developed for the hoop and bending components of pipe deflection. The simplified equations are applicable for a wide range of pipe materials while logically incorporating the hoop and bending stiffness of the soil-pipe interaction.

A study was undertaken to investigate the conditions of the gas pipelines under the Jamuna Bridge Access Road during roadway rehabilitation. The Government of Bangladesh performed the work for this project, which comprised of rehabilitating, widening, and improving the geometric layout of a 23.8 km road between Joydebpur and Mirzapur in Bangladesh. Beneath the existing road, gas pipelines of 200 mm (8-inch) and 250 mm (10-inch) diameters are located at various depths and locations. Construction at the site includes excavation of the existing materials overlying the gas pipelines, and in some cases exposing the pipelines. However, computer analyses conducted during the course of this study determined that road construction could be safely conducted despite the presence of the exposed or semi-exposed gas pipelines. Results of these analyses, as well as a suitable method of the rehabilitation work to ensure safety of the pipelines, is discussed.

In this paper, a 3-D finite element method (FEM) was developed to analyze the interaction among earth-retaining structures, soil, and adjacent buried pipelines. Based on this method, the displacement and the stress of nearby buried pipelines due to excavation were calculated. This paper analyzed the effect of soil improvement on reducing the displacement of buried pipelines. Through analysis of different soil improvement methods, the best protection plan for pipelines was derived. This paper also compared the behavior of buried pipelines with ductile joints with the pipelines with rigid joints. Conclusions drawn in this paper may assist in the design and construction of deep excavations.

Geotechnical investigations are a critical component of trenchless technology projects. Trenchless construction methods can be very sensitive to subsurface conditions in the feasibility, final design, or construction stages of a project. This paper will review the planning, execution, and reporting of these investigations. Comparisons will be made to geotechnical investigations for larger tunnels and other facilities. Case histories will be reviewed for projects in Maryland, North Carolina, Ohio, Virginia, and Minnesota. In addition, comparison will also be made between predicted and encountered conditions, and any associated construction difficulties.

City of Las Vegas has undertaken the construction of US95-RANCHO interceptor sewer using trenchless methods. The project required installation of 6,270 LF of 42 inches and 4,580 LF of 60 inches sanitary sewer by Microtunneling method under North Rancho Drive, one of the busiest arterial in Las Vegas. The front-end engineering and design was performed by PBS&J Consulting of Henderson, Nevada and Tampa, Florida. The basic considerations for the trenchless project were: (1) Cover depth (over 50 feet in certain areas); (2) US Highway 95 traffic restrictions based on Nevada Department of Transportation requirements; (3) Groundwater and soils conditions; (4) Aggressive construction time-frame.

The Transcanada Pipelines Ltd. (TCPL)mainline system carries natural gas from the Alberta/Saskatchewan border to delivery points near the Quebec/Vermont border. The system contains pipelines that traverse approximately 4,000 kilometres (2,500 miles) of terrain and delivers about 2,900 Bcf of gas per year. As part of the integrity program this system has been subjected to a geotechnical hazard identification and assessment program over the last several years. The geotechnical hazard assessment process has identified hazardous sites and specific studies at these sites have been undertaken. TCPL has recently begun a transition from performing Hazard Management to an overall Risk Management approach for pipeline integrity. As part of this process TCPL required that a geotechnical risk methodology be developed to analyze the risk posed to the pipeline due to landslides. Therefore a new landslide failure probability estimation process was developed to complete this program.

Pipe jacking methods are commonly used for trenchless installation of pipelines under highways, railroads, watercourses, environmentally sensitive areas, and congested urban settings where open-cut trenching is not viable. For pipelines from approximately 1067 mm (42 inches) in diameter and larger and where line and grade control is critical, man-entry tunnel boring machines (TBM) and remotely-operated microtunnel boring machines (MTBM) are two of the tunneling methods available for construction. While these tunneling methods share many common features and equipment, they have many distinct strengths and weaknesses. Selection of the tunneling method that is most appropriate for the anticipated subsurface conditions is critical to the success of the tunneling operation and installation of the pipeline. This paper discusses key geotechnical conditions that influence the operation and selection of TBMs and MTBMs. Capabilities and limitations for the machines are outlined relative to soil, bedrock and groundwater conditions, and changes in subsurface conditions within an individual tunnel drive. The author's experiences with TBM and MTBM tunnel projects in the San Francisco Bay Area have been used to illustrate how geotechnical and machine considerations influence the selection of appropriate pipe jacking tunneling methods, and ultimately, the success of the project.

The behavior of buried flexible pipe is influenced to a considerable extent by the properties of the backfill materials. Recently, geosynthetics are commonly used in retaining wall for reinforcement. And flexible pipe is used for drainage in such embankment. However, the behavior of buried flexible pipe in the retaining wall reinforced by geosynthetics is not clear. In this paper, two types pit tests were conducted using a model flexible pipe having a diameter of 150 mm that was equipped with 20 bi-axial load cells in reinforced backfill cover by geosynthetics. In case of first type, as the model pipe subside vertical in the ground, the distribution of the earth pressure acting on the model pipe, and changes of earth pressure in the sand backfill without geosynthetics were measured. Second case is using sand backfill with geosynthetics. As a result, in case of second condition, it was found that the vertical earth pressure acting on the model pipe decreased by 25% of the overburden pressure obtained by the prism formula, and the vertical load distributed to around by arcing action.

This work presents a survey of the recently employed finite element models for the numerical evaluation of the behavior of buried pipes with emphasis on soil-structure interaction. The design and risk evaluation of buried pipes should consider the reciprocal interaction that exists between the flexible pipe and the adjacent soil. A great variety of analytical and computational procedures can be applied in the analysis of the soil-pipe interaction problem, from simplified models of the behavior of the soil that represent the response of the soil in terms of a discrete one- dimensional spring to more complex models that represent a continuous response in three dimensions of the soil. Similar considerations are applied to the model of the structural response of the pipe. In simplified approaches, the pipe is modeled as a flexible beam with axial, flexural, shearing and torsion stiffness and in more elaborated approaches; the pipe is modeled as a cylindrical shell with non-linear tension-deformation relationship.

Underground lifelines, such as gas and water pipelines, can be affected by the movement of the adjacent ground. Earthquake-induced Permanent Ground Deformation (PGD), occurring as surface fault deformation, liquefaction-induced soil movements, and landslides, can severely affect such buried pipelines. To design pipelines against earthquakes, the pipelines should have enough stiffness and strength against a force conveyed from the adjacent ground. For the pipelines constructed in areas where such PGD is expected, the pipe stiffness should be increased with a larger diameter, thickness or strength, or the soil-pipe interaction should be reduced. In this paper, the effect of EPS (Expanded Poly-Styrene) for backfill on the reduction of soil-pipeline interaction was evaluated as an earthquake-resistant design.

In this paper, the seismic damage behavior of buried pipeline is analyzed. Taking the breakage of the pipe joints caused by seismic wave propagation as the main damage mode, a probabilistic model of seismic damage prediction of buried pipeline is presented. Both the seismic response and the resistance of pipe structures are treated as the random variables, and their statistical characteristics are discussed. Three states of pipeline under earthquake damage are defined, and the allowable displacements of the pipe joints are presented based on experiments. The velocity of seismic wave propagation along the pipelines and soil-pipe interaction are also discussed.

An empirical relationship is developed to estimate damage due to earthquakes in the primary water system in Mexico City. Damage data during the 1985 Michoacan earthquake are reanalyzed, taking advantage of the fact that, during the last decade, the ability to estimate ground motion in the Valley of Mexico, including the important site effects observed, has been significantly improved. The relationship proposed is believed to be a good tool to estimate damage during future earthquakes and to estimate repair costs. A preliminary seismic microzonation is proposed which, along with better design practices, will improve the performance of the pipelines. This microzonation might help in the creation of contingency plans aimed to reestablish the water service as soon as possible after a large earthquake.

In 1998 an existing hydroelectric power plant located at 2,000 m elevation on the Rio Vilcanota close to the Inca Ruins at Machu Picchu in the high Peruvian Andes was effectively destroyed by flash; flooding caused by the melting of an adjacent glacier burying the plant with 55 M cum of material. To reinstate the plant the owner, EGEMSA, planned a new tailrace tunnel and the successful bidder elected to construct an alternative of twin 2.5 m tunnels utilizing pipe jacking techniques and a slurry TBM working from deep shafts in either valley wall. Variable soils conditions and unexpectedly high jacking forces were experienced early in the first of two drives and despite measures taken pipe jacking was stopped for over six weeks. It was eventually possible, following some modifications on site, to restart the drive and successfully complete the first drive and subsequently the second drive was also successfully completed in 11 days.

This paper outlines the key ingredients required during the planning stages through design and construction of trenchless installations. The importance of adequately defining existing site constraints and soil and groundwater conditions together with recognizing the potential impact to existing constructed works is paramount for successful completion of a project. The authors have been involved in many trenchless pipeline installation projects using numerous trenchless methods. Through this experience the authors have observed that the ingredients for a successful project are generally the same, regardless of the details of the project or the specific trenchless installation method used. This paper presents a general discussion of those key ingredients and examples of their application in two brief case histories. These examples include auger boring beneath an active railroad and pipe jacking beneath an active subway station and major thoroughfare in the heart of a large metropolitan area. Pipe casing with diameters ranging from 760mm to 1370mm (30 to 54-inches) was installed at invert depths of up to 10.7m (35 ft) below existing grades and had reaches that ranged in length from to 43m to 134m (140 to 440 ft.)

Pipe splitting is used for the on-line replacement of pipelines made from ductile materials, for example ductile iron and steel. It is a relatively new technique and so there is limited knowledge about the associated ground displacements, in contrast to the pipe bursting operations used for pipelines constructed of brittle materials, such as clay, concrete or cast iron. Understanding, and hence predicting, the ground displacements generated by pipe splitting is of vital importance when considering safe distances to other services and controlling possible damage to the road surface. This paper describes the results from some simple analytical and numerical analyses that have been conducted in an attempt to develop such a method of prediction. This work follows on from a series of full-scale laboratory experiments and an instrumented field trial, which showed that an elliptical expansion of the soil locally to the existing pipe best represented the general behaviour of the ground for the most common type of pipe splitters currently used in practice. Consequently both the analytical and numerical work has concentrated on assessing this assumption. The results from these analyses suggest that the elliptical assumption for the localized displacement is valid.

Trenchless pipe replacement, or pipe bursting, is defined as the replacement of an original pipe by fragmenting the existing conduit and simultaneously installing product pipe in its place. In the static method of pipe replacement, the original pipe fails in tension by radial forces developed from the cone shaped bursting head geometry that are applied to the pipe wall from within the pipe, as it is pulled or pushed through the existing pipe. The fragmented pieces are pressed into the surrounding soil as it is being displaced, thus creating a cavity for the product pipe. This paper presents a model to calculate the maximum pull force (a function of the friction, bursting, soil compression, and shear forces) required to be overcome to complete a static pipe bursting pull. Based on site-specific information, the model provides a valuable tool for contractors, engineers, and manufacturers in planning successful pipe replacement projects.

Compared with a pneumatic impact hammer system for pipe ramming, a hydraulic system has many advantages such as higher energy utilization efficiency, longer service lifetime, smaller dimensions and weight, and less pollution. So we developed a hydraulic impact hammer system for pipe ramming. This work will present the mechanism of the hydraulic hammer and its mathematical model. In order to analyze and optimize the performance of a hydraulic impact hammer for pipe ramming, numerical simulation was carried out. The results of the theoretical analysis aided by computer are presented. In addition, the result of a preliminary field test on the hydraulic impact hammer for pipe ramming is presented.

This paper presents the results of our analysis of blast effects on prestressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) lines and presents guidelines for arriving at safe peak particle velocity (PPV) of blasts. These guidelines are based on field inspection of the actual condition of the pipe and determination of PPV that will damage the pipe. We present the results of the field inspection of the pipe condition of a particular line near a quarry and the PPV measurements taken near and on the pipe during the repeated blasts. The effect of blasts on the pipe is examined considering three damage limit states: coating delamination, longitudinal cracking, and circumferential cracking. Cracking is a precursor to other damages to the pipe, such as failure of the liner or the wall, buckling of the steel cylinder, or rupture of the pipe. We considered the most severe strains from the three types of seismic waves produced during the blast: P-wave, shear wave, and Rayleigh wave. PPV causing pipe damage in one of the limit states is sensitive to the stiffness or shear wave velocity in the soil and the backfill conditions. Safe levels of PPV at the pipe, and the corresponding blasting charges, are determined for the limit states selected based on the results of analysis of past blasting events and the damages observed on the nearby pipes.

This paper will present a discussion on the planning, permitting and design of petroleum and gas pipeline relocations. Key elements associated with pipeline relocations will be presented, including: pipeline impact identification; relocation options; planning, permitting, and design; right-of-way evaluation; operational considerations; and construction and as built documentation. The pipeline industry is subject to a significant amount of third party impacts. In fact, damages to the nation's pipelines are predominantly the result of third party involvement. There are many different sources of impacts including; developments, highways, railroads, utility installations, and changes in the natural environment. Timely identification of third party impacts is a major concern within the industry and poses many challenges for companies with interstate facilities. Each state has different notification requirements for the utility "One Call" process, which results in the establishment of varying protocols. Additionally, the rights within pipeline easements do not always favor the pipeline owner. Pipeline relocations are generally small projects that often require a tremendous amount of logistics and coordination, and can have very lengthy timeframes.

In recent years, pipeline construction of shallowly buried flexible pipes is increasing. This is due to the cost of general pipeline construction with deep excavation, having depth of cover of about 1.5–2.0 times of the pipe diameter. However, buried pipeline with a shallow depth of cover has a risk of large deformation caused by traffic loads. This paper presents the behavior of buried flexible pipe with shallow depth of cover under traffic live load analyzed by D.E.M.(Distinct Element Method Analysis). As a result, it was found that the behavior of a shallowly buried pipe under traffic live load can not be evaluated by the current design according to Spangler's assumption.

Pipelines are widely employed systems by the transport of oil and gas. Due to its great extensions and to economic and environmental reasons it is important to assure safe and efficient operation of the pipelines. One of the most commonly registered defects by pipes is corrosion. The determination of the residual load capacity of corroded pipes is object of study of many researchers all over the world. With this effort empirical methods were developed and are widely employed. However, most of these methods are only applicable to pressure loaded pipes, and do not take into account more complex combined loading. Additionally highly conservative results are obtained by these methods. Alternative methods have been developed based on the finite element method. This paper describes two full-scale failure tests on artificially corroded pipes subjected to simultaneous internal pressure, bending, and longitudinal compression and presents a detailed account of the finite element analysis procedure that was developed to simulate these tests numerically. After calibrated in view of the experimental results, a parametric study was carried out to evaluate the changes of the burst pressure due to the increase in the depth and length of the defects. These values are compared with the burst pressure obtained by empirical methods.

The Ohio Research Institute for Transportation and the Environment (ORITE) of Ohio University has recently completed the initial phase of its thermoplastic pipe deep burial project in Ohio. This was one of the most comprehensive field studies ever undertaken on thermoplastic pipes, involving eighteen instrumented test pipes in a variety of installation conditions and subjected to either 6.1-m (20-ft.) or 12.2-m (40-ft.) high soil cover loading for a prolonged period of time. While working on the final report, a large volume of the field performance data was analyzed and reviewed carefully by the authors. By comparing the field performance data supplied by various pipe installation cases, many observations were made and confirmed repeatedly by the authors. The authors believe that the data collected in the project will lay a foundation for the improved thermoplastic pipe design method of the future. This paper summarizes the findings made by the authors during the first two years of the project.

Situations arise in practice where axial forces induced by temperature changes can lead to failure of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes. Temperature decreases can induce large axial tensions, and lead to fracture in the pipe barrel or at connections. Temperature increases can produce axial thrusts that induce buckling when there is insufficient lateral support along the pipe. The behavior of HDPE under thermal loading is therefore investigated for thick and thin-walled extruded pipe specimens. Experimental work has been performed to characterize the coefficients of thermal expansion in the longitudinal and circumferential directions. Testing was conducted to study the variability of the coefficients of thermal expansion over the temperature range –10°C to +20°C. Further testing was conducted to investigate the dependence of thermal strain on thermal loading history. The data obtained from the experimental work have been used to implement thermal modeling capability in an existing linear viscoelastic (LVE) finite element model, to be reported on in a future paper.

It may be a cliché, but simply and directly put "when the going gets tough, the tough get going". Gray and ductile cast iron pipes for centuries have been called upon by Owners, Engineers, and Contractors to withstand the toughest installation and service applications. Congested treatment plant construction with heavy construction loading, aerial crossings, subaqueous river crossings, intakes and outfalls, shallow bury, deep bury, highway and railroad crossings, contaminated soils, rugged terrain, and now many varied trenchless applications are all on the resumé of tough, ductile iron pipe. Horizontal directional drilling (HDD) and pipe bursting are two (2) of the trenchless installation technologies that are now increasingly utilizing the pipe, joints (including special "bell-less" joints), inherent strengths, toughness, and versatility of ductile iron pipe systems. This paper will discuss these features and techniques as they apply to the installation of ductile iron pipe and will provide several installation case histories. The paper will show how ductile iron pipe can be pushed or pulled directly through the ground in long "strings". Perhaps even more importantly, it will show how various types of single-length ductile iron pipes may be quickly assembled and installed in "cartridge" fashion with much less impact on local traffic, businesses, and customers in many congested utility corridors and urban areas.

In a previous article, "Embracing Changes in Trenchless Renewal Technology," the case was made that the most logical approach to plans and specifications for projects involving trenchless pipeline renewal technologies was performance documents. Given the pace of emerging new technologies and the continued refinement of existing ones, many consulting engineers have indicated that a set of performance documents obtained the most cost-effective solution for their owners. Performance documents convey the information necessary to prepare an accurate estimate of the cost of the desired improvements and an understanding of what the level of performance for these improvements should be to meet the End User's (Owner's) objectives. Further, these documents set forth how the Engineer will approach monitoring the installation of these improvements to confirm this level of performance has been obtained. This paper will instruct the design engineer in the fundamentals of good QA/QC for the gamut of currently available Close-Fit liner technologies, provide guidelines for knowledgeable monitoring of the QA/QC results, and prepare the foundation on which future technologies can be added to their performance specifications.

Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) contractors are currently facing heightened environmental scrutiny due to concerns regarding hydraulic fracturing and subsequent migration of drilling fluids to the surface. To address these concerns, a research program was undertaken based on two critical assumptions: 1) hydraulic fracturing is likely to occur if the yield point, plastic viscosity, and gel strength of the fluid are not maintained within flowable limits; and 2) drilling fluid design matched to soil type is critical in prevention of hydraulic fracturing. Studies have also revealed that the two primary factors affecting hydraulic fracturing in soil are borehole pressure and depth of cover. Borehole pressure in an open borehole is determined by the weight and resistance to flow of the drilling returns. While empirical models such as the Bingham and Herschel-Bulkley fluid models have been employed to predict borehole pressures, their use has been limited by the lack of information on fluid return properties. This paper presents the results of a laboratory testing program that was undertaken to evaluate rheologic properties and flow characteristics of fluid returns in an attempt to predict and control hydraulic fracturing during HDD installations.

In 1995, the Pipeline Research Committee at the American Gas Association published a manual titled Installation of Pipelines by Horizontal Directional Drilling, an Engineering Design Guide. This manual included a method to estimate loads and stresses imposed on pipelines during installation by horizontal directional drilling (HDD). Since the initial development of the calculation method, theoretical pulling loads determined by this method have been compared against actual pulling loads recorded during HDD installations. This paper presents an analysis of theoretical and actual pulling loads to determine if modifications to the calculation method are warranted based on documentation from completed HDD projects. The specific documentation utilized in this analysis consists of joint-by-joint carriage force gauge readings recorded during actual HDD installations.

When a pilot hole is drilled through hard rock using Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) techniques, localised bends (called "doglegs") are created by the drilling / sliding / rotating sequences employed in the operation of the mud motor and its bent housing. The aggregated severity of these doglegs (also known as tortuosity) needs to be minimised otherwise high lateral loads as well as torque and drag forces are developed in the drill pipe and reaming tools. This paper explains how the severity of the doglegs impacts upon the down hole tooling and suggests designs for reamers suitable for such circumstances.

In this paper the working principle of a steerable air-powered impact mole is described in detail. Determination by model experiments of the cone-apex angle and the maximum deflection angle of the chisel head of the impact mole is introduced. The steerable air-powered impact mole consists of an adjusting system of chisel head and . an air hammer system. Both systems are described in detail. The field test of the prototype machine is introduced. The result of the preliminary field test proves that KCM130 steerable air-powered impact mole can be used for directional boring with the help of a radio detective system.

Much of the world's underground water and sanitary sewer infrastructures are deteriorating and must be immediately rehabilitated or replaced. Long past their useful lives, many systems also are inadequate to meet capacity demands generated by decades of population growth. Because many failing water and sewer pipes are in established urban areas where excavation is difficult or impossible, trenchless construction often is the best and most cost-effective option for installing new pipe. Of the various trenchless procedures available, the most versatile is horizontal directional drilling (HDD), a proven technology widely used to make underground telecommunications, electrical, and natural gas line installations. HDD also is appropriate for public works construction. A growing number of successful projects document the benefits of directional drilling for the trenchless installation of water and sewer pipes, and this paper examines the advantages of using horizontal directional drilling for water and sanitary sewer construction.

Horizontal directional drilling (HDD) in urban environments creates some risk with respect to heave and subsidence induced damage to nearby utilities, pavements, and structures. Risk management practices and field quality controls are reviewed and risk factors for heave and subsidence are analyzed based upon governing geotechnical conditions. Allowable drilling pressures and ground improvement protections are discussed as primary mitigation tools. An application of geomechanical modeling is introduced, using cavity expansion theory to provide quantitative assessment of drilling mud limit pressure and minimum cover requirements. Analytical results are compared with other related published numerical analyses and methods. Findings are discussed in relation to five major HDD installations in the Honolulu vicinity. Modeling is also shown to help evaluate jet grout ground improvement for subsidence protection.

Gulfstream Pipeline's 914 mm (36 inch) outside diameter, 644 kilometer (400 mile) long offshore pipeline constructed in 2001 and 2002 was the largest pipeline project ever undertaken in the Gulf of Mexico. Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) was employed for the shoreline crossing at four locations. The pipeline was laid from a starting point on the coast of Mississippi near Pascagoula, to the coast at Coden, Alabama. The Coden portion included parallel (HDD) installations of 914 mm O.D. x 1,372 meter (36 in. O.D. x 4,500 ft.) long. The pipeline was then laid by marine equipment from Coden across the Gulf of Mexico to a shore crossing by a HDD installation at Spoil Island in Tampa Bay, Florida. The HDD installations were performed without difficulty except at Coden, Alabama. After two failed pullback attempts at Coden, a novel application of a large capacity pipe-ramming tool allowed for a successful completion. The pipe-ramming tool reduced pullback forces considerably. One pipe string some 1,000+ meters long had been in the hole 21 days before the tool was attached. Once the ram was energized, the pipe became free in the bore and rig pull forces were below that encountered prior to the difficulty. This paper will provide a construction overview of the work at Coden, analyze the measured effects of this pipe-ramming tool, and investigate other uses of this tool in the HDD industry.

When the directional drilling method of pipeline installation was first introduced to the United States, members of the ductile iron pipe industry did not view their product as applicable to this method of installation. The reason; it was incorrectly believed that the directional drilling installation method required a pipe material with a uniform outside diameter throughout the entire pipe length. Consequently research and development efforts were put into action to design and test a ductile iron pipe restrained joint with a uniform outside diameter. In the meantime, the number of contractors and utilities installing Underground infrastructure by the directional drilling method has steadily increased. In the third annual Horizontal Directional Drilling survey conducted by Underground Construction magazine published in June 2001, it is reported that there are approximately 4,000 contractors and utilities engaged in Horizontal Directional Drilling construction. Of these contractors and utilities, 12.6% participate in the water market while 11% participate in the sewer market. A primary reason for this growth in the horizontal directional drilling method for the installation of underground utilities is expressed by Donovan Larson in a report presented at the AWWA 1997 Distribution System Symposium in Norfolk, Virginia. In a paper entitled, "Using Directional Boring to Install Ductile Iron Pipe" Larson states, "This work of replacing main through open trenching techniques, which typically is located in older neighborhoods with established landscaping, driveways, and curbing is very disruptive." This statement is augmented in No-Dig Engineering, Volume 8, Number 2 in an article by Richard L. Stone, II, P. E., Project Engineer for Natural Gas Systems, Inc. located in Columbia, Missouri wherein is stated, "Directional boring has proved to have less social and environmental impact for installing underground utilities".

Microtunneling techniques were used to install five kilometers of sewers as part of a major sewerage scheme in Barbados, in the eastern Caribbean. This paper discusses the challenges encountered and the lessons learned.

A routing study performed by Black & Veatch recommended a water transmission pipeline to be constructed under the American River. Crossing the American River entails microtunneling a 54-inch pipeline approximately 1,450 feet at a depth of approximately 60 feet below ground. In addition, from the microtunnel receiving shaft, the pipeline will follow a residentially- and commercially- developed street in which numerous existing utilities are present.

This paper presents construction management considerations and techniques that were used in the Pacific Coast Highway (PCH) Sewer Replacement project, which successfully installed 8,000 feet of 60-inch diameter reinforced concrete sewer main in the City of Santa Monica, California. The construction was performed under a major 6 lane arterial highway, next to high visibility beach areas, adjacent to multi-million dollar residences and below the water table and a dense layer of existing utilities. To manage this highly visible and complex microtunneling project, a multifaceted construction team was assembled to plan the work from the design stage and through constructability reviews, geotechnical investigations, multiple advertise/bid/award/pre-construction stages, and through construction and close out phases. As the work progressed, systems were used to monitor and report on a daily basis any potential problems with settlement, heave, slurry consistency, and machine misalignment, steering or stoppage. In addition to normal construction management considerations, additional measures were instituted to mitigate noise and vibration problems to adjacent residences and to maintain traffic flow for commuters, all during an extensive public outreach campaign.

In March 2001, Crescent Resources, LLC (Crescent) acquired a 1.2 million m² (300-acre) former railroad-switching yard site, which bridges the City of Alexandria (City) and Arlington County, Virginia known as Potomac Yard. Crescent plans to develop the site into a high-quality, mixed-use community with hotels, retail stores, offices, town homes, apartments, parks and play fields. As a condition of the development, Crescent was required to plan, design and construct the required infrastructure to support the planned development prior to the issuance of building permits for the Potomac Yard site.

This paper describes a project that demonstrates the benefits of careful evaluation and acceptance of project alternatives, development of a refined alternative, using a consultant with specialist expertise and experience, conception and implementation of a performance specification, use of advanced techniques in a developing environment, and implementation by an experienced designer/contractor.

In 1984 the City of Houston embarked on a multi-year and multi-million dollar effort known as the Surface Water Transmission Program (SWTP) to assist the City in converting from primarily groundwater to surface water. The SWTP was the City's response to a mandate issued by the Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District (HGCSD) to increase surface water use and decrease groundwater use. The HGCSD established conversion goals and target dates to reduce subsidence caused by the withdrawal of the groundwater. Continued localized flooding of neighborhoods within the Houston area has recently added more emphasis to converting to primarily surface water. As part of the City's SWTP, two separate construction contracts (a 54-inch (1,370-mm) and 72-inch (1,830-mm) water transmission main) were specified to be constructed using a tunnel boring machine (TBM) for various design considerations. For a number of reasons these two recent tunneling experiences proved to be very difficult to construct and resulted in major cost overruns. This paper discusses the challenges faced during design, the problems encountered while attempting to complete the tunnel excavation and the lessons learned during construction of these critical tunnel sections.

The Pentagon needs to replace the existing intake and outfall lines for its Heating and Refrigeration Plant (H&RP). The plant services all of the heating and refrigeration capacity for the Pentagon, the Navy Annex and several other structures in the area. The intake and outfall lines are over 60 years old. The new lines will increase the water flow capacity both to and from the plant. Modern Continental is serving as the design/builder and Jacobs Civil is providing design and construction services as part of the Pentagon Renovation Program. The project includes the construction of a 2.3m (90-inch) diameter intake tunnel to deliver water to the H&RP chillers. Water will be drawn off the bottom of a nearby lagoon, which is cooler than the surface water. A 1.5m (60-inch) diameter condenser outfall pipeline will be constructed to discharge water into a waterfowl sanctuary. The project included several challenges including tunneling in a complex soft geology beneath the water table and crossing beneath a number of transportation systems. A design/build process with an integrated project team was selected to fast track the construction process. This approach has provided quick resolution of issues, an expedited review of design documents and real-time decision-making on proposed construction changes. A cost reimbursable contract with an award fee structure was used to share risk between the owner and design/builder. There is also an incentive program to help reduce the overall construction costs.

The Water Supplies Department of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) commissioned Black & Veatch Hong Kong Limited to design and supervise the construction of a service reservoir with an ultimate capacity of 200,000 cubic meters. Provided the pipeworks for the service reservoir were arranged in a conventional approach, five large diameter pipelines: 2 nos. DN 2000 inlet mains, 2 nos. DN 2000 outlet mains and 1 no. DN 1200 outlet main would have to be laid on steep slopes supporting the service reservoir. Potential leakage from these pipelines would undoubtedly pose a risk on slope stability threatening the structural integrity of the service reservoir. To alleviate this potential hazard, an innovative design has been implemented in which all inlet and outlet mains, and their associated valves are accommodated in a shaft and tunnel system. As added merits, this design significantly reduces traffic disruption and aesthetically unpleasing, as well as facilitates ease of future inspection and maintenance. This paper describes the key issues involved in this innovative design and discusses the challenges encountered in installation of large diameter pipelines in a shaft and tunnel system.

Design engineers are actively providing pipeline planning for a variety of projects around the world. These projects include a diverse range of pipeline types, sizes, materials, and environments. Planning includes, but is not limited to, elements of needs assessments, route selection, alignment development, evaluation of impacts, and cost estimating. One significant element of pipeline planning is the consideration of the impacts of existing subsurface utilities on route selection, alignment development, and installation costs. C/I ASCE 38-02 provides a framework for the engineer and project owner to develop a scope of work that clearly defines roles and responsibilities for the investigation of these existing utilities. This paper presents case histories where the concepts presented in this new ASCE standard were used in the planning process to the benefit of the project owner and the public.

Edwards & Kelcey serves as the Prime Design Consultant for the NJDOT's reconstruction of Rte 21 through downtown Newark, NJ. This is a highly urbanized old section of city with utilities dating back to the 1800s. The total project length is approximately 4000 meters, with over 75,000 meters of underground utilities. Complicating the highway design process is the concurrent design by others of an in-street light rail system. The relocation design and/or coordination of water, sanitary sewer, combined sewer, electrical conduit, and gas pipelines were included in E&K's scope of work. Pipeline sizes ranged from 150 mm to 2100 mm in diameter. ASCE/C-I 38-02 was used to develop a scope of work for collecting and depicting information regarding existing utilities. Early QL B utility data allowed the designers to avoid and minimize relocations, although it was ultimately necessary to relocate approximately 3,400 meters of pipes and conduit. QL A utility data were gathered to further clarify the relocation design of pipelines and other utility structures to avoid conflicts with existing infrastructure. ASCE/C-I 38-02 provided an unambiguous scope of work with an equitable allocation of risk between the project owner, designer, and constructor. It fostered an environment of cooperation between utility owners and the design/construction team. Although its use increased the design costs, this increase was more than offset by a significant reduction in construction costs and time.

A lack of reliable information on the location of underground utilities can result in costly conflicts, damages, delays, service disruptions, redesigns, claims, and even injuries and lost lives during construction activities. While the location of subsurface utilities might be found on plans and records, experience has often shown that the utility locations are not exactly as recorded or the records do not fully account for the buried utility systems. This may be especially true of our nation's aged roadway infrastructure. An engineering process known as Subsurface Utility Engineering (SUE) has proven to be a welcome solution to providing this much-needed utility information. Combining civil engineering, surveying, geophysics, nondestructive excavation, and other technologies, SUE provides accurate mapping of existing underground utilities in three dimensions during the early design phase, which avoids unnecessary utility relocations and related downtime, eliminates unexpected conflicts with utilities, and enhances safety during construction. The use of SUE services has become a routine requirement on highway and bridge design projects, and is strongly advocated by the Federal Highway Administration and many State Departments of Transportation.

The American Institute of Constructors (AIC) identifies damage to underground pipelines as the third most important crisis for contractors, the other two highly ranked issues being on-the-job accidents requiring hospitalization and contractual disputes with a client resulting in litigation. Two methods used in the construction industry to improve the safety of the underground pipelines during construction are the One-Call system, and Subsurface Utility Engineering (SUE). In the first section of this paper, these two systems are briefly described. Based on this assessment, the benefits of synergistic use of these systems are discussed. In the second section, the experiences of State Departments of Transportations (DOTs) that have either used or considered the use of SUE on their highway projects are presented. Evaluating the use of SUE by the major users provide a better understanding about the benefits of SUE.

This paper presents a simplified approach for the evaluation and ranking of alternative construction methods that can be employed in the installation, rehabilitation or replacement of buried sewer pipes. Rather than developing a new approach, the model adopts selected features from existing approaches and combines them into a single, generic and easy to codify algorithm. The approach selected emphasizes simplicity and practicality, and limits input data to those readily available to municipal engineers.

The value of innovative, network-based solutions for virtual teaching, learning and working in basic and advanced training is becoming increasingly important. Besides the independence of the learning and working places and the respective time scales of learning and working compared to conventional possibilities, there is an advantage of such offers in the medium-specific, contextual and didactic structure. UNITRACC, The German Training and Competence Center for Underground Infrastructure is one such solution for the field of sewer and pipeline construction, i.e. for craftsmen, technicians and engineers of smaller and medium sized companies and public officials as well as for students and trainees. In order to ensure a topical, operational competence development, that takes account of the qualification requirements and the necessity for continuous advanced training, as well as the problems and solutions required by the economy, ecology and state of the technology, the platform comprises three areas: information / research, teaching / learning, and working (ASP).

On December 2000 Lockwood, Andrews and Newnam, Inc (LAN) was awarded to be the program manager of the Accelerated Surface Water Transmission Program (ASWTP) by the City of Houston. The ASWTP involves a $150 million investment in 24 surface water transmission mains over a three-year period. This time period was determined by Houston's Mayor Lee P. Brown to be necessary in order to meet northwest Houston's water demands. Other benefits include increased system pressures and a more reliable water system. The ASWTP consists of planning, engineering and construction of over 200,000 linear feet of mostly 84-inch to 48-inch diameter water mains. The City of Houston then awarded each of the 24 water main contracts to separate engineering firms for design. After design was complete the City of Houston advertised each project and the lowest bidder was awarded construction of the water main.

Theory of Inventing Problem-Solving (TRIZ) gave engineers an approach for advancing technical systems. It is based on envisioning an ideal solution of a problem, postulated contradictions between ideal solution and real conditions, and finding resources in a system to resolve these contradictions. Real examples from authors' practice show how TRIZ approach works.

Construction of a much needed sewer separation and stormwater management project in the Crescent/Carver neighborhood in Cambridge, Massachusetts, involved a two-year period of extensive disruption for residents and businesses. This paper describes how a dynamic community relations program helped build public support for this project and eased disruption to daily routines. The neighborhood was in urgent need of relief from flooding and wastewater backups that occurred during heavy rainstorms. The record-breaking rainstorm of June 13, 1998, was the catalyst for the project. The storm dropped 254mm (ten inches) of water in a 24-hour period, causing severe street flooding throughout the neighborhood and inundating basements with water mixed with raw sewage. "The heavens opened up yesterday, unleashing a powerful storm that turned roads into swamps, filled sewers to the breaking point, and set a one-day record for rainfall in June," read the front page headline of the Boston Globe's June 14, 1998, Sunday edition. When it was all over, the storm left thousands of dollars worth of property damage and posed a threat to public health. As a result, the City of Cambridge's Department of Public Works embarked on an aggressive two-year sewer separation and stormwater management project to install stormwater holding tanks, storm drains, and a water distribution system, as well as rehabilitate the sewer system in the project area. The City's overall plan was to assure citizens that quality of life, public health and the environment would be safeguarded for generations to come by planned new infrastructure that would prevent both sewer back-ups and release of untreated sewage into the Charles River.

In 1984, the City of Houston (City) established the Surface Water Transmission Program (SWTP), a $200 million, multi year capital improvement program to assist the City in converting from primarily groundwater usage to surface water. The SWTP was the City's response to a mandate issued by the Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District (HGCSD) to increase surface water use and decrease groundwater withdrawal. Conversion requirements were established by the HGCSD to reduce subsidence caused by the withdrawal of groundwater. Continued subsidence increases localized flooding, adversely impacts existing underground utilities, and reduces the life expectancy of existing City groundwater wells. In 1990, the City of Houston, Friendswood, City of Pasadena, City of South Houston, Clear Lake Water Authority, and other utility partners placed in operation the Southeast Surface Water Purification Plant. A 96—inch transmission main originates from the plant and provides surface water to an estimated population of over 500,000 persons. Surface water is supplied to south Houston through a 42-inch prestressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) that connects to the 96-inch transmission line. This 42-inch line was placed in service in the mid 1960's. The City has had to shut down this critical line to perform repairs on a regular basis. To comply with the HGCSD mandate, meet the growing demands of southeast Houston, and provide redundancy to the 42-inch PCCP line serving Galveston, an additional surface water supply line was needed. Based on hydraulic modeling, a 36-inch water main (approximately 25,250 linear feet (LF)) was determined to be the optimal size to supply surface water to the southeast area of Houston.

The Gunston Commerce Center — Sewage Pump Station — Force Main project was one many thought would never be built. Isolated from central public water and sewer utilities, the 42 hectare (104 acre) Gunston Commerce Center commercial and light industrial property lay at the bottom of a remote drainage shed in the southeastern most corner of Fairfax County, Virginia. Where once the Fairfax County Master Water and Sewer Plans included the extension of public utilities into the area, the unexpected decision by the United States Congress to order the closing of the District of Columbia's Lorton Correctional Complex, the predominant need for improved public utility service to the southern end of Fairfax County disappeared. That left the small Gunston Commerce Center drainage shed without access to public facilities. Initially, attempts were made by the project Owner to develop on-site water supply, treatment, distribution and storage facilities and an on-site advanced wastewater treatment plant capable of meeting the stringent Potomac River Embayment Sewage Effluent Standards which had been recently adopted by the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality. Once the permit applications had been filed and the preliminary plans for on-site utilities had received approval from the Virginia Departments of Health and Environmental Quality, local governmental efforts began in earnest to find suitable alternatives to the on-site treatment plants through a public-private partnership.

The overall project presented consists of evaluation of existing infrastructure and planning the improvement/upgrading of regional potable water and sewerage systems for the coastal city of Barcelona, (near Puerto La Cruz) Venezuela, and the surrounding area. This presentation will focus on the wastewater system aspects assessed. The primary objective was to investigate the existing system and conceptually develop/evaluate alternatives for the collection and conveyance of wastewater flows in the Barcelona, VZ area. Background information was reviewed, as well as the technical framework necessary to determine the most viable wastewater collection and conveyance alternatives, and to effectively prioritize sanitary sewer collection system investigation and ultimate rehabilitation.

South Whitehall Township (SWT) discharges wastewater from approximately 85% of its service area together with flows from portions of Lower Macungie Township (LMT) to the City of Allentown (City) wastewater treatment plant via the City's Cedar Creek Interceptor (CCI). Flows from this general service area emanate from three distinct tributary areas with average daily flows of almost 7,576 M³ (2 million gallons) per day. Neighboring Salisbury Township (ST) also discharges wastewater into the CCI downstream of SWT and LMT. An inter-municipal agreement with the City requires that the municipalities which contribute flow to the City interceptors must provide relief facilities when interceptor capacity is reached, and surcharging in the CCI prompted the City to so notify SWT, LMT, and ST. The resultant relief interceptor included approximately 4,000 M (13,000 lf) of 76.2 cm (30-inch) diameter ductile-iron pipe, three creek crossings, three highway bores, a flow-separation chamber, and an inverted siphon. The proposed presentation will (1.) List the alternatives analyzed for relief of the City's interceptor; (2.) Outline the estimated costs for each alternative; (3.) Identify the alternative chosen by the project participants; (4.) Discuss planning and permitting procedures, and design considerations; and (5.) Review challenges encountered during construction. Unique design and construction considerations were necessitated because the sewer is aligned through City parklands and private properties for its entire length.

Man has changed the environment as long, as he has lived because of his activities geared towards social and economic development. This century, however, has witnessed innumerable, unprecedented, social development, which unavoidably impacts the environment and has escalated the consequential environmental changes at a drastic pace. Pipelining activities no longer only affect local surroundings, often they impact the environment on a regional and wider scale. Recently, from the seventies, there have been suggestions both in favour of and against pipeline development projects in Nigeria and other parts of Africa. However, it should be noted that poverty is the worst form of pollution and yet any intense effort to establish, much less maintain, a higher standard of living involves modifying the natural environment perilously. It is a known fact that the tropical developed countries tend to have burgeoning population whose need for fuel strains the supporting capacity of the local environment. Since in most cases, the advantages of pipeline development projects often outweigh the disadvantages, the World Bank came up with the idea that the best approach is to find ways of avoiding or mitigating some of the environmental damages that such an economic project can cause without slowing the pace of economic progress. It noted that a small investment in prevention would be worth many times more than would later have to be spent to repair any damages.

Rock Solid has been using specially configured micro-geophysical techniques combined with its understanding of geotechnical and geochemical issues in the study of various sub-surface and surface engineering structures eliminating the need for destructive sampling and testing. To successfully apply suitable technology for condition assessment a clear understanding of the techniques' limitations and manipulation of recorded data is essential. Lack of suitable and efficient methods for assessment of ferrous pipelines commonly forming parts of urban water, sewer and gas infrastructure has lead Rock Solid to develop new technology to tackle this issue. Ferrous pipes such as cast iron, ductile iron, wrought iron and mild steel form an integral part of the life-line to all major towns and cities. They carry water or gas to and sewerage away from these centres. Their failure in many instances is unacceptable to the communities they service. The ability to accurately assess their current condition and continue monitoring any condition changes during their life cycle is essential to enable the development of a budgeted and targeted maintenance program. The application of Rock Solid's patented Broadband Electromagnetic (BEM) technology has found a large range of applications throughout the world. The flexibility and ease of use of this technology has seen the development of both in-line as well as external inspection methods of ferrous pipelines. BEM technology is now also being applied to a variety of other engineering structures such as underground tunnels and bridges where wall linings and supports are constructed from ferrous materials. The basic outline of the technology as well as the various configurations will be discussed. Case histories will be used to highlight the application of this technique.

This paper summarizes the work to date by Jason Consultants International (Jason) with their associates Damon Williams Associates (DWA) for the Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF) contract "Research and Evaluate Innovative Methods Used In The Inspection Of Wastewater Collection Systems" (RFP No. 01-CTS-7). This is a 2 year project and commenced in March 2002.

The need to have good information on pipeline condition is greatly increasing the need for inspection which in turn generates large quantities of data which is becoming difficult to manage. A better way in dealing with the data and a more strategic way approach to choosing sewer lines to be inspected and better methods applying current and emerging technologies needs to be applied correctly and logically if the right decisions are to be made. This paper proposes a "Three Level" approach to achieve this strategy and the logic behind such a philosophy. Some technologies that can be applied to various levels are briefly described together with their advantages and limitations. This paper also suggests a different approach when planning a pipeline inspection.

The United States is critically dependent on natural gas and petroleum liquids transported through pipelines. The infrastructure that currently transports these energy resources is aging, with a significant fraction being more than 50 years old. The enormity of the problem of deteriorating pipeline infrastructure is apparent. Since rebuilding the piping system is not financially realistic, pipeline operators require the capacity to monitor the condition of buried pipes. Thus, a reliable pipeline assessment and management system is necessary so that pipeline operators can develop long-term, cost-effective maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation programs. These programs are necessary to ensure that critical pipeline sections are repaired or replaced before they fail. The quality of the assessment can be optimized by choosing the most suitable sensors for the particular inspection problem. In order to do this, it is necessary to define the specifications of the required inspection and, consequently, to take into account details of the nature and characteristics of the pipe. Studies have shown that the structural performance and behavior of the pipe is dependent on type of backfill placed around the pipe, construction sequence, compaction control, surface loads, and the type of pipe material. To fully understand the condition of a pipe network additional information other than pipe surface condition is necessary. The aim of this paper is to review currently used and newly developed sensing methods suitable for assessing the condition of sewer pipes.

Slurry pipelines have been used for over a century to transport minerals wastes and dredging materials over short distances. In the last three decades, many long slurry pipelines have been constructed and used for transporting ores such as copper and coal. Pneumatic pipelines (i.e., pneumo-conveying or pneumo-transport) also have been used extensively in the last 200 years for transporting more than one hundred types of materials. Current use is extensive and covers numerous industries and factories, but the use is still limited to short distances. Pneumatic capsule pipeline (PCP) played an important role in transporting mail, parcels and telegrams during the first half of the 20^th Century, but such use ceased shortly after WWII. However, automated shorter systems for drive-in banks, hospitals and large factories have continued to date. Since 1970, large PCPs of approximately 1 m diameter have been used commercially in the former Soviet Union and Japan. Each of such pipelines transports more than one million tons of freight per year, with each capsule carrying about 2 tons of cargo. The self-propelled-vehicles pipelines have had their greatest success for rapid transit—the subway, which is a form of capsule pipeline. Recent advancements in computer and automatic control technologies, coupled with the advancement in trenchless technologies including tunneling and directional drilling, have greatly expanded the capability and usefulness of freight pipelines for various applications hitherto not possible.

Various transport systems have been studied for the transportation of waste packages and buffer materials from the ground surface to the underground radioactive waste disposal facility, such as a lift (vertical shaft type) and trucks (inclined tunnel type). These `conventional' methods are unsatisfactory in terms of reliability, safety and economy. This paper introduces the pneumatic capsule pipeline (PCP) as a new method for the transportation. The system based on the PCP is designed to transport pneumatically waste packages and buffer materials between the surface and the underground. The capsule moving in the pipeline can be controlled to obtain an appropriate speed by adjusting the air current in the shaft. This system can transport both a thousand meters vertically and several hundreds meters horizontally by using one pipeline to eliminate number of transferring materials from one system to another which may reduce the system reliability. The system is also used to transport excavated debris, equipments and materials during construction. It is economical to utilize the system for air ventilation in addition to be used for transportation. This paper discusses the applicability of the system to the geological disposal of radioactive waste based on analytical simulation whose accuracy has been proven by experimental study.

Transportation of goods on the streets constitutes a great problem in the development of Germany's economy, especially in congested areas with high density of population and buildings. Cities are threatened by traffic collapse due to the fact that the number of motor vehicles increases much faster than the capacity of the street network. On the other hand, just-in-time delivery from producers to the processing industry becomes more and more important. Due to the lack of efficiency, the traffic systems including streets, railways, waterways and aircraft are not able to render trouble-free, safe and non-polluting services. Therefore it becomes necessary to look for new ways of fast, flexible and on-time handling of traffic processes as well as to create non-polluting transportation capacities. This requires solutions of a sustainable development nature fulfilling the needs of the presence without restricting the possibilities of future generations and forcing them to steadily develop new ways of transportation. One possible solution of this problem may be the transportation of packaged goods via underground pipeline systems. During the last 5 years the Ruhr-University Bochum executed a study of feasibility about this possibility of freight transportation under the interdisciplinary research project "Underground Transportation and Supply Systems" consisting of the disciplines Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Control Techniques, Law, Economics and Civil Engineering. The result of these studies is the concept "CargoCap" which is devised as an independent and efficient system, fulfilling operational profitability demands that can be expanded with ease. It can be set up quickly in technical terms without violating public interests and coordinating with traditional transportation systems and logistics concepts without any problems. Thus CargoCap represents the fifth transportation alternative to the traditional transportation systems.

Two of the most suitable types of linear electric motor (LEM) for capsule propulsion in pneumatic capsule pipeline (PCP) systems, the linear synchronous motor (LSM) and the linear induction motor (LIM), are described and compared. Recent studies of the use of an LSM and a tubular LIM, or TLIM, for PCP propulsion are described.

Centrifuge modeling was used to simulate the effects of seasonally induced freezing and thawing in a 4m deep section of silt. Because the work was exploratory and modest in size, a buried "pipeline" was modeled simply as a buried boulder (0.5m diameter at full scale), thereby requiring no end restraint considerations. One model examined behavior when the boulder was buried at a depth of 1m. The other model was identical except there was no boulder. In both cases the phreatic surface was at a depth of 1m. 320 days of cooling and warming were simulated at 35 g in 6 hour 16 minutes. In the model with no boulder, initiation of significant net upward surface heave was recorded. Thaw settlement did not fully reverse frost heave by the end of the test. In the model with a buried boulder, cooling initially led to consolidation which appeared to be localized and thermally induced, preceding the advancing 0°C isotherm, and the onset of net upward heave. This behavior was recorded first at the soil surface, and later at the boulder. Access to water is important to the magnitude of both these effects. Upward heave of the boulder continued even as surface thaw settlement was recorded. The boulder was closer to the soil surface at the end of the 320 (simulated) day test than it was at its lowest point. This same technique of centrifuge modeling can easily be applied to larger models of pipelines heave with different soils, and different temperature regimes.

Physical ageing of commercial polymers used in trenchless relining of sewer pipes has been investigated. The analysis uses modified effective-time theory (ETT) and time-temperature superposition (TTSP) methods. The data generated by this study show that the time-dependent creep properties of these materials can be modeled within experimental error with changes to the methods reported in the literature. It is shown that a rotation, along with a horizontal shift of the ageing data, is needed to obtain the ageing parameter of the materials. Temperature has no effect on the ageing shift rate. The TTSP is shown to be an accurate method for determining the shift factors to adjust creep data for temperature changes. A novel method is presented to predict the creep behavior of full-scale specimens. The method relies on novel procedures to generate and shift the TTSP master curve from the reference testing age and reference temperature to the testing age and temperature of the full-scale specimens.

The leakage from a buried pipeline or reservoir in freezing or frozen ground will not follow the same path through the soil as leakage in unfrozen ground. In freezing soil, both the cold temperatures themselves and the cold temperature gradients play very significant roles in the contaminant transport. This research describes the paths of ethylene glycol (antifreeze) injected below ground into silt before, during or after freezing at the depth of injection is identified, and these are contrasted in one case to the path followed by injected water. When ethylene glycol is injected before freezing, subsequent freezing draws the contaminant vertically to the soil surface. When it is injected after freezing, it is contained, at least over that duration, in the frozen ice rich soil. When it is injected as freezing is occurring, its path is long and inclined upward, moving far from the point of injection. Water injected similarly during freezing does not travel far from the point of injection before being frozen into place. Repeating the centrifuge freezing experiments with, for example, a petroleum product which offers its own temperature related complications to the resulting transport, would lead to different patterns and would be easily accomplished using this research method.

This paper presents a comparison of traffic delays and related costs involved during utility construction using open-cut and trenchless methods. A case study of two sites involving utility construction is chosen and the traffic flow rate was measured. Depending on the type of pipe installation method used, the time lost and costs of delay were calculated. The same is repeated for the alternate method of pipe installation applying the same criteria. The time and cost parameters were compared against one another for a given site. These costs were added to the social costs and the actual cost of construction. The life-cycle costs are then analyzed and the best alternate for that particular site is derived, using the data from the case studies. The comparative curve gives an estimate of the general data for a range of utility construction. Based on the data from the case studies and literature review of similar existing studies, the information can be applied to a range of applications in utility construction.

Utilities require documentation of their needs to justify their budgets and their user rates and fees. Engineering, construction, financing, product manufacturing, and investment firms are attempting to assess the size and scope of the trenchless pipe renovation opportunity. The author draws upon data from the Water Infrastructure Network (WIN), the U.S. Government Accounting Office (GAO), the U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Wall Street analysts, and industry surveys, along with quotes from public officials (local & federal), to document the need for and market growth potential of pipe renovation products and services. Mainstream public acceptance and awareness of the need for pipe renovation is also documented within media coverage (including U.S. News & World Report, New York Times, USA Today, National Public Radio, etc.). Motivation to accomplish the work and funding sources to pay for the work are confirmed. The data indicates pipe renovation will likely grow to become an $11.5 billion annual industry, with the trenchless pipe renovation sector likely to reach at least $5 billion annually. This rate of expenditure may be sustained for up to 50 years.

The City of Cleveland is expanding Cleveland Hopkins International Airport (CHIA) to increase capacity and meet modern airport capacity and safety standards. To do this, new runway systems must cross one mile of Abram Creek, an urban stream with an 8 square mile drainage area. This paper summarizes the alternatives evaluated, hydraulic design features, geotechnical considerations, sediment and erosion control approach, and airfield security considerations.

This paper presents various aspects of the design and construction of three high-pressure natural gas overhead crossings across major rivers in Pakistan. One of these crossings is supported over piles, one is attached with a recently constructed R.C.C bridge while the third one is supported over masonry piers of a 50 years old barrage. The diameter of these pipelines varies from 914 mm to 450 mm and total length varies from about two kilometers to 150 meters. Various problems encountered in selection of appropriate alignment, design, type of supports and hangers, layout of expansion loops etc. are discussed.

Auger Boring is a very common trenchless method for providing water line and gravity sewer pipe installations under the roads and highways. Narrow easements and increased amount of buried utilities, are indicating a need to achieve precise line and grade accuracy in pipe installations. As the drive length increases the ability to control the direction of the casing of conventional auger boring equipment becomes more difficult. Earnest Whatley, of Whatley Construction located in Chesapeake, Virginia looked to Guided Boring Method guidance technology for a project requiring installation of 328 feet of 24 inch steel casing. The project was the first step in the installation of a gravity sewer under a state highway in Smithfield VA. Using the Guided Boring Method's guidance system resulted in precise line and grade installation of the steel casing. The line and grade accuracy was checked after the pilot tube installation and again after the steel casing was installed. A precise steel casing installation allows the contractor to use a fixed height support bracket for threading the product pipe through the entire length of the steel casing.

This paper presents an overview of the development of the manual of practice for auger boring projects by the Trenchless Installation of Pipelines (TIPS) committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). The manual will present guidelines representing standards of practice at various phases of auger boring projects. After reviewing information from various manuals and specifications, a table of contents has been agreed by the task committee established by the TIPS committee. The final draft of the manual will be ready for committee review at the International No-Dig Show, March 29, 2003, in Las Vegas and will be close to publication by ASCE before the ASCE Pipelines 2003 International Conference, July 2003, in Baltimore.