Homeowners’ Perceptions of Seismic Building Performance and Implications for Preparedness in New Zealand
Publication: Natural Hazards Review
Volume 24, Issue 1
Abstract
Over the last decade, engineering studies have mentioned the need for meeting societal demands of damage expectations and housing performance for major earthquakes. However, they do not refer to any systematic analysis examining such societal demands, nor have they investigated interactions of this with voluntary seismic strengthening. A questionnaire distributed to homeowners of wooden-framed houses in the Wellington region of New Zealand investigated these issues. Survey respondents expected a better seismic performance of their house after voluntarily undertaking structural strengthening (i.e., positive outcome expectancy) and expected a better seismic performance of their house, regardless of the use of strengthening, than what is accepted by current seismic codes, which aim for life safety (i.e., collapse prevention). Although this study found that experience of damage in past earthquakes was not associated with final implementation of such preparedness measures, access to strengthening information and trust toward providers of information, such as builders, were found to play a key role when adopting strengthening. This study gives insight into the role that outcome expectancy and sources of information play in voluntary structural strengthening of residential low-rise buildings and indicates a need for better engagement, such as working closer with builders as sources of information, to reduce losses in future major earthquakes.
Formats available
You can view the full content in the following formats:
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank QuakeCoRE, a Aotearoa New Zealand Tertiary Education Commission-funded Centre, for funding and supporting the research. This is QuakeCoRE publication number 0716. We also thank research fellows at the Joint Centre for Disaster Research (JCDR) at Massey University for distributing surveys. This research was conducted in accordance with the University of Auckland Human Participants Ethics Committee (UAHPEC Reference Number 023962). We thank all participants for their support in this research.
References
Beattie, G., and S. Thurston. 2006. Changes to the seismic design of houses in New Zealand. Christchurch, New Zealand: New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering.
Beaupre, A., M. DeMarco, T. Dutra, A. Gogichaishvili, D. Haley, A. Hyman, N. Calvetti, and J. Potter. 2014. Life safety vs. preservation of community and heritage buildings in the Wellington region. Worcester, MA: Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Becker, J., M. C. Daly, and L. Mamula-Seadon. 2011. Building community resilience to disasters: A practical guide for the emergency management sector. GNS Science Rep. 2011/09. Wellington, New Zealand: GNS Science and Massey Univ.
Becker, J., D. Paton, and D. Johnston. 2015. Communication of risk: A community resilience perspective. GNS Science Rep. 2015/66. Wellington, New Zealand: GNS Science and Massey Univ.
Becker, J., D. Paton, D. Johnston, K. Ronan, and J. McClure. 2017. “The role of prior experience in informing and motivating earthquake preparedness.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 22 (Sep): 6–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.03.006.
Building Act. 2004. Earthquake-prone buildings. New Zealand: Ministry of Business, Innovation, and Employment.
Celsi, R., M. Wolfinbarger, and D. Wald. 2005. “The effects of earthquake measurement concepts and magnitude anchoring on individuals’ perceptions of earthquake risk.” Earthquake Spectra 21 (4): 987–1008. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.2099047.
Cooney, R. 1979. “The structural performance of houses in earthquakes.” Bull. N.Z. National Soc. Earthquake Eng. 12 (3): 223–237. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.12.3.223-237.
Crozier, M., J. McClure, J. Vercoe, and M. Wilson. 2006. “The effects of land zoning information on judgements about earthquake damage.” Area 38 (2): 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4762.2006.00686.x.
Demuth, J. L., R. E. Morss, J. K. Lazo, and C. Trumbo. 2016. “The effects of past hurricane experiences on evacuation intentions through risk perception and efficacy beliefs: A mediation analysis.” Weather Clim. Soc. 8 (4): 327–344. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-15-0074.1.
Dowrick, D., G. Hancox, N. Perrin, and G. Dellow. 2008. “The modified Mercalli intensity scale—Revisions arising from New Zealand experience.” Bull. N.Z. Soc. Earthquake Eng. 41 (3): 193–205. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.41.3.193-205.
Egbelakin, T., and S. Wilkinson. 2010. “Sociological and behavioural impediments to earthquake hazard mitigation.” Int. J. Disaster Resil. Built Environ. 1 (3): 310–321. https://doi.org/10.1108/17595901011080896.
Egbelakin, T., S. Wilkinson, and J. Ingham. 2014. “Economic impediments to successful seismic retrofitting decisions.” Struct. Surv. 32 (5): 443–446. https://doi.org/10.1108/SS-01-2014-0002.
Egbelakin, T., S. Wilkinson, R. Potangaroa, and J. Ingham. 2011a. “Challenges to successful seismic retrofit implementation: A socio-behavioural perspective.” Build. Res. Inf. 39 (3): 286–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2011.552264.
Egbelakin, T., S. Wilkinson, R. Potangaroa, and J. Ingham. 2011b. “Enhancing seismic risk mitigation decisions: A motivational approach.” Construct. Manage. Econ. 29 (10): 1003–1016. https://doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2011.629664.
EQC (Earthquake Commission). 2015. EQC annual Report 2014-15. Wellington, New Zealand: EQC.
FEMA. 2012a. Seismic retrofit guidelines for detached, single-family, wood-frame dwellings. FEMA P50-1. Washington, DC: Applied Technology Council.
FEMA. 2012b. Simplified seismic assessment of detached, single-family, wood-frame dwellings. FEMA P50. Washington, DC: Applied Technology Council.
Ge, Y., W. G. Peacock, and M. K. Lindell. 2011. “Florida households’expected responses to hurricane hazard mitigation incentives.” Risk Anal. 31 (10): 1676–1691. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01606.x.
Ghobarah, A. 2001. “Performance-based design in earthquake engineering: State of development.” Eng. Struct. 23 (4): 878–884. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-0296(01)00036-0.
Holden, C., A. Kaiser, R. Van Dissen, and R. Jury. 2013. “Sources, ground motion and structural response characteristics in wellington of the 2013 Cook Strait earthquakes.” Bull. N. Z. Soc. Earthquake Eng. 46 (4): 188–195. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.46.4.188-195.
Jennings, E. 2015. “A multi-objective community-level seismic retrofit optimization combining social vulnerability with an engineering framework for community resiliency.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State Univ.
Johnston, D., J. Becker, J. McClure, D. Paton, S. McBridea, K. Wright, and M. Hughes. 2013. Community understanding of, and preparedness for, earthquake and tsunami risk in Wellington, New Zealand. 131–148. Berlin: Springer.
Kaiser, A., et al. 2017. “The 2016 Kaikōura, New Zealand, earthquake: Preliminary seismological report.” Seismol. Res. Lett. 88 (Sep): 142–163. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220170018.
King, A. 1999. A guide to the performance expectations of New Zealand housing systems. Study Rep. No. 87. New Zealand: BRANZ.
Kirkham, W., R. Gupta, and T. Miller. 2014. “State of the art: Seismic behavior of wood-frame residential structures.” J. Struct. Eng. 140 (4): 04013097. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000861.
Kunreuther, H., and A. Kleffner. 1992. “Should earthquake mitigation measures be voluntary or required?” J. Regul. Econ. 4 (21): 321–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00134925.
Lindell, M., and R. Perry. 2000. “Household adjustment to earthquake hazard a review of research.” Environ. Behav. 32 (4): 461–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160021972621.
Lindell, M., and R. Perry. 2012. “The protective action decision model: Theoretical modifications and additional evidence.” Risk Anal. 32 (4): 616–632. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01647.x.
Lindell, M. K., and C. S. Prater. 2002. “Risk area residents’ perceptions and adoption of seismic hazard adjustments.” J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 32 (10): 2377–2392. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb01868.x.
Lindell, M. K., and D. J. Whitney. 2000. “Correlates of household seismic hazard adjustment adoption.” Risk Anal. 20 (1): 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/0272-4332.00002.
McClure, J., M. W. Allen, and F. Walkey. 2001. “Countering fatalism: Causal information in news reports affects judgments about earthquake damage.” Basic Appl. Soc. Psychol. 23 (Sep): 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2302_3.
McClure, J., D. Johnston, and L. Henrich. 2013. Changes in preparedness and earthquake risk perception: Lessons from the 2010 and 2011 Canterbury earthquakes. Paper No. 0043 (EQC 12/U641). New Zealand: Earthquake Commission.
McClure, J., M. Spittal, R. Fischer, and A. Charleson. 2015. “Why do peopletake fewer damage mitigation actions than survival actions? Other factors outweigh cost.” Nat. Hazard. 16 (2): 04014018. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000152.
McClure, J., R. Sutton, and C. Sibley. 2007a. “Listening to reporters or engineers? How instance-based messages about building design affect earthquake fatalism.” J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 37 (9): 1956–1973. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00245.x.
McClure, J., R. Sutton, and M. Wilson. 2007b. “How information about building design influences causal attributions for earthquake damage.” Asian J. Soc. Psychol. 10 (4): 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2007.00232.x.
Minister of Civil Defence & New Zealand Government. 2019. National disaster resilience strategy. New Zealand: National Emergency Management Agency.
Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment. 2021. Early insights—Initial evaluation of the earthquake-prone building system. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment.
Miranda, C., J. S. Becker, L. J. Vinnell, C. L. Toma, and D. M. Johnston. 2021. “Seismic experience and structural preparedness of residential houses in Aotearoa New Zealand.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 66 (Sep): 102590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102590.
Miskell, B. 2008. Wellington city urban character assessment. Wellington, New Zealand: Wellington City Council.
Mulilis, J., and T. Duval. 1995. “Negative threat appeals and earthquake preparedness: A person-relative-to-event (PrE) model of coping with threat.” J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 25 (15): 1319–1339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb02620.x.
NZSEE (New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering). 2017. “C9—Detailed seismic assessment—Timber buildings.” In Ministry of business, innovation and employment. Christchurch, New Zealand: NZSEE.
NZS (New Zealand Standards). 1936. NZS 95. New Zealand: New Zealand Standards Institution.
NZS (New Zealand Standards). 2011. Timber-framed buildings. NZS 3604. New Zealand: Ministry of Business, Innovation, and Employment.
Olshansky, R. B. 2005. “Making a difference: Stories of successful seismic safety advocates.” Earthquake Spectra 21 (2): 441–464. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.1902953.
Orchiston, C., J. Mitchell, T. Wilson, R. Langridge, T. Davies, B. Bradley, D. Johnston, A. Davies, J. Becker, and A. McKay. 2018. “Project AF8: Developing a coordinated, multiagency response plan for a future great Alpine Fault earthquake.” N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys. 61 (3): 389–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2018.1455716.
Pampanin, P. 2012. Living a new era in earthquake engineering: Targeting damage-resisting solutions to meet societal expectations. Tweed Heads, Australia: Australian Earthquake Engineering Society.
Paton, D. 2003. “Disaster preparedness: A social-cognitive perspective.” Disaster Preven. Manage. 12 (3): 210–216. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653560310480686.
Paton, D. 2013. “Disaster resilient communities: Developing and testing an all-hazards theory.” J. Integr. Disaster Risk Manage. 3 (Jan): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.5595/idrim.2013.0050.
Paton, D. 2019. “Disaster risk reduction: Psychological perspectives on preparedness.” Australas. J. Psychol. 71 (4): 327–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12237.
Paton, D., R. Bajek, N. Okada, and D. McIvor. 2010. “Predicting community earthquake preparedness: A cross-cultural comparison of Japan and New Zealand.” Nat. Hazards 54 (3): 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-010-9500-2.
Paton, D., D. Smith, and D. Johnston. 2005. “When good intentions turn bad: Promoting natural hazard preparedness.” Aust. J. Emerging Manage. 20 (1): 120–125.
Porter, K. 2021. “Should we build better? The case for resilient earthquake design in the United States.” Earthquake Spectra 37 (1): 523–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755293020944186.
Priestly, M. 2000. “Performance based seismic design.” In Proc., 12th World Conf. in Earthquake Engineering. San Diego: Univ. of California.
Robinson, R., R. Van Dissen, and N. Litchfield. 2011. “Using synthetic seismicity to evaluate seismic hazard in the Wellington region, New Zealand.” Geophys. J. Int. 187 (3): 510–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2011.05161.x.
Rogers, R. 1975. “A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change.” J. Psychol. 91 (1): 93–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803.
Russell, L., J. Goltz, and L. Bourque. 1995. “Preparedness and hazard mitigation actions before and after two earthquakes.” Environ. Behav. 27 (6): 744–770. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916595276002.
Rüstemli, A., and A. Karanci. 1999. “Correlates of earthquake cognitions and preparedness behavior in a victimized population.” J. Soc. Psychol. 139 (1): 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224549909598364.
Şakioroğlu, M. 2011. Positive outcomes of 1999 Duzce earthquake. Ankara, Turkey: Middle East Technical Univ.
Schierle, G. 2003. Northridge earthquake field investigations: Statistical analysis of woodframe damage. Los Angeles: Univ. of Southern California.
Scovell, M., C. McShane, A. Swinbourne, and D. Smith. 2020. “Experience and the perceived efficacy of cyclone preparedness behaviour.” Int. J. Disaster Resil. Built Environ. 12 (2): 170–183. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDRBE-04-2020-0031.
Simpson-Housley, P., and F. Curtis. 1983. “Earthquake occurrence, experience and appraisal in Wellington, New Zealand.” Prof. Geogr. 35 (4): 462–467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1983.00462.x.
Spittal, M., J. McClure, R. Siegert, and F. Walkey. 2005. “Optimistic bias in relation to preparedness for earthquakes.” Australas. J. Disaster Trauma Stud. 2005 (1).
Stevenson, J., J. Becker, N. Cradock-Henry, S. Johal, D. Johnston, C. Orchiston, and E. Seville. 2017. “Economic and social reconnaissance Kaikōura earthquake 2016.” Bull. N. Z. Soc. Earthquake Eng. 50 (2): 343–351. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.50.2.343-351.
Takagia, J., and A. Wadab. 2019. “Recent earthquakes and the need for a new philosophy for earthquake-resistant design.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 119 (Nov): 499–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.11.024.
Tanner, A., S. Chang, and K. Elwood. 2020. “Incorporating societal expectations into seismic performance objectives in building codes.” Earthquake Spectra 36 (4): 2165–2176. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755293020919417.
Tanner, J. F., E. Day, and M. R. Crask. 1989. “Protection motivation theory: An extension of fear appeals theory in communication.” J. Bus. Res. 19 (Sep): 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(89)9008-8.
Thomas, G., and G. Finc. 2017. Earthquake damage for sloping residentialsites in the Canterbury earthquakes and implications for Wellington 10932017 NZSEE Conf. Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria Univ. of Wellington.
Thomas, G., and R. Shelton. 2012. Performance of house lining and cladding systems in the 22 February Lyttleton earthquake 2012 NZSEE. Wellington, New Zealand: School of Architecture, Victoria Univ. of Wellington.
Todd, D., N. Carino, R. Chung, H. Lew, A. Taylor, W. Walton, and J. Cooper. 1994. Northridge earthquake. performance of structures, lifelines and protection systems. NIST Interagency/Internal Report (NISTIR) No. 5396, Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Toitū Te Whenua Land Information New Zealand. 2020. “NZ Topo50 Maps Version 39.” Accessed September 27, 2022. https://data.linz.govt.nz/layer/50767-nz-topo50-maps/.
Van Dissen, R., and K. Berryman. 1996. “Surface rupture earthquakes over the last in the Wellington region, New Zealand, and implications for ground shaking hazard.” JGR Solid Earth 10 (2): 5999–6019. https://doi.org/10.1029/95JB02391.
Vinnell, L. J., T. Milfont, and J. McClure. 2019a. “Do social norms affect support for earthquake strengthening legislation? Comparing the effects of descriptive and injunctive norms.” Environ. Behav. 51 (4): 376–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916517752435.
Vinnell, L. J., T. Milfont, and J. McClure. 2019b. “The impact of the Kaikōura earthquake on risk-related behaviour, perceptions, and social norm messages.” Australas. J. Disaster Trauma Studies 23 (2): 12–25.
Vinnell, L. J., T. L. Milfont, and J. McClure. 2021. “Why do people prepare for natural hazards? Developing and testing a Theory of Planned Behaviour approach.” Current Res. Ecol. Soc. Psychol. 2 (13): 123–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100011.
Wallace, L. M., U. A. Cochran, W. L. Power, and K. J. Clark. 2014. “Earthquake and tsunami potential of the Hikurangi subduction thrust, New Zealand: Insights from paleoseismology, GPS, and tsunami modeling.” Oceanography 27 (2): 104–117. https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2014.46.
Weinstein, N. D. 1989. “Effects of personal experience on self-protective behavior.” Psychol. Bull. 105 (1): 31–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.105.1.31.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Natural Hazards Review
Volume 24 • Issue 1 • February 2023
Copyright
This work is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
History
Received: Nov 10, 2021
Accepted: Aug 7, 2022
Published online: Dec 9, 2022
Published in print: Feb 1, 2023
Discussion open until: May 9, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Catalina Miranda, Charlotte Toma, Max Stephens, Julia Becker, Predictions of Damage to Timber-Framed Houses. II: Aligning Social and Engineering Predictions of Earthquake Damage before and after Strengthening, Natural Hazards Review, 10.1061/NHREFO.NHENG-1812, 24, 4, (2023).
- Catalina Miranda, Charlotte Toma, Max T. Stephens, Predictions of Damage to Timber-Framed Houses. I: Seismic Performance of Wood-Framed Houses Located on Slopes, Natural Hazards Review, 10.1061/NHREFO.NHENG-1811, 24, 4, (2023).