Predictions of Damage to Timber-Framed Houses. II: Aligning Social and Engineering Predictions of Earthquake Damage before and after Strengthening
Abstract
This paper is the second of two companion papers that seeks to compare homeowners’ expectations of damage and engineering predictions of damage to timber-framed houses before and after undertaking seismic structural strengthening. Part I analyzed the seismic vulnerability of wooden-framed houses located on slopes in Wellington, New Zealand, investigating factors of plan shape relative to the slope, slope variations, and wall distribution, and how they influence the final seismic performance of houses. A structural survey provided data on the form and typical details for the subfloor bracing, and this was then used as the basis for a simple strengthening solution that is numerically investigated here. This companion paper analyzes the improvement of seismic performance after undertaking strengthening to the subfloor structure using a multiple stripe analysis. In the last phase of this work, engineering-based predictions of performance as determined using the numerical models were compared to homeowners’ expectations of damage before and after undertaking strengthening. This comparison paper found that although strengthened timber-framed houses located on slopes satisfy the minimum requirement of New Zealand design codes, there is still a probability of damage occurring, which would not satisfy owners’ expectations of performance in all scenarios.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank QuakeCoRE, a New Zealand Tertiary Education Commission-funded Center, for funding and supporting the research. This is QuakeCoRE publication number 0804. The authors wish to acknowledge the use of New Zealand eScience Infrastructure (NeSI) high performance computing facilities, consulting support and/or training services as part of this research. New Zealand’s national facilities are provided by NeSI and funded jointly by NeSI’s collaborator institutions and through the Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment’s Research Infrastructure program. URL https://www.nesi.org.nz. Finally, the authors thank BRANZ (Building Research Association of New Zealand) for providing the experimental data for the modelling calibration. This research was conducted in accordance with the University of Auckland Human Participants Ethics Committee (UAHPEC: Reference Number 023962).
References
ATC (Applied Technology Council). 2012. Development of simplified guidance for seismic rehabilitation of soft-story wood-frame buildings. ATC-71-1. Washington, DC: FEMA.
Bahmani, P., and J. Van de Lindt. 2012. “Numerical modeling of soft-story woodframe retrofit techniques for design.” In Proc., Structures Congress 2012. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Bahmani, P., and J. Van de Lindt. 2013. “Direct displacement design of vertically and horizontally irregular woodframe buildings.” In Proc., Structures Congress. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Bahmani, P., J. Van de Lindt, and T. Dao. 2014. “Displacement-based design of buildings with torsion: Theory and verification.” In Proc., Structures Congress. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Bahmani, P., J. Van de Lindt, M. Gershfeld, G. Mochizuki, S. Pryor, and D. Rammer. 2016. “Experimental seismic behavior of a full-scale four-story soft-story wood-frame building with retrofits. I: Building design, retrofit methodology, and numerical validation.” J. Struct. Eng. 142 (4): E4014003. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001207.
Baker, J. W. 2015. “Efficient analytical fragility function fitting using dynamic structural analysis.” Earthquake Spectra 31 (1): 579–599. https://doi.org/10.1193/021113EQS025M.
Beattie, G. 2012. “The response of houses to the Canterbury earthquake series 2010–2011.” In Proc., World Conf. Earthquake Engineering. Porirua, New Zealand: Building Research Association of New Zealand.
Becker, J. S., E. Garden, M. Van der Velde, M. A. Coomer, A. Rampton, D. M. Johnston, D. Blake, and G. Newman-Hall. 2018. Impact of the 2016 Kaikōura earthquake on Wellington CBD apartment residents: Results of a survey. Lower Hutt, New Zealand: Geological and Nuclear Sciences Limited.
Bradley, B. 2013. “A New Zealand-specific pseudospectral acceleration ground-motion prediction equation for active shallow crustal earthquakes based on foreign models.” Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 103 (3): 1801–1822. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120120021.
Buchanan, A., and M. Newcombe. 2010. “The performance of residential houses in the Darfield (Canterbury) earthquake.” Bull. N. Z. Soc. Earthquake Eng. 43 (4): 387–392. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.43.4.387-392.
Cooney, R. 1979. “The structural performance of houses in earthquakes.” Bull. N. Z. Natl. Soc. Earthquake Eng. 12 (3): 223–237. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.12.3.223-237.
Dogangun, A., O. Tuluk, R. Livaoglu, and R. Acara. 2006. “Traditional wooden buildings and their damages during earthquakes in Turkey.” Eng. Fail. Anal. 13 (6): 981–996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2005.04.011.
EcoPLY. 2011. EcoPLY structural plywood. Specification and installation guide. Auckland, New Zealand: Carter Holt Harvey.
FEMA. 2012a. Seismic evaluation and retrofit of multi-unit wood-frame buildings with weak first stories. FEMA P-807. Washington, DC: FEMA.
FEMA. 2012b. Seismic retrofit guidelines for detached, single-family, wood-frame dwellings. FEMAP50-1. Washington, DC: FEMA.
FEMA. 2012c. Simplified seismic assessment of detached, single-family, wood-frame dwellings. FEMA P50. Washington, DC: FEMA.
Goda, K., and G. Atkinson. 2011. “Seismic performance of wood-frame houses in south-western British Columbia.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 40 (8): 903–924. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.1068.
Ingham, J., and M. Griffith. 2011. The performance of earthquake strengthened URM buildings in the Christchurch CBD in the 22 February 2011 earthquake. Auckland, New Zealand: Royal Commission.
Kirkham, W., R. Gupta, and T. Miller. 2014. “State of the art: Seismic behavior of wood-frame residential structures.” J. Struct. Eng. 140 (4): 04013097. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000861.
Lew, S. 1989. Performance of structures during the Loma Prieta earthquake of October 17, 1989. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Liddicoat, S., and G. Thomas. 2011. Retrofitting house foundations to resist earthquakes—A literature review. Wellington, New Zealand: Centre for Building Performance Research, Univ. of Wellington.
Lucksiri, K., T. Miller, R. Gupta, S. Pei, and J. W. van de Lindt. 2012. “Effect of plan configuration on seismic performance of single-story wood-frame dwellings.” Nat. Hazards 13 (1): 24–33. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000061.
Ma, Z., M. Li, A. Liu, J. Wang, L. Zhou, and W. Dong. 2022. “Seismic performance of single-storey light timber-framed buildings braced by gypsum plasterboards considering rigidity of ceiling diaphragms.” Structures 41 (Jul): 1207–1219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2022.05.076.
Miranda, C., J. S. Becker, C. L. Toma, and L. J. Vinnell. 2022. “Homeowners’ perceptions of seismic building performance and implications for preparedness in New Zealand.” Nat. Hazard. Rev. 24 (1): 04022047. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000600.
Miranda, C., J. S. Becker, L. J. Vinnell, C. L. Toma, and D. M. Johnston. 2021. “Seismic experience and structural preparedness of residential houses in Aotearoa New Zealand.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 66 (Dec): 102590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102590.
Mosalam, K., and S. Mahin. 2007. “Seismic evaluation and retrofit of asymmetric multi-story wood-frame building.” J. Earthquake Eng. 11 (6): 968–986. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632460601188019.
Nishikawa, H., and T. Takatani. 2012. “Collapsing simulation of wooden house retrofitted by ACM braces during seismic ground motion.” In Proc., 2012 Int. Conf. on Advances in Coupled System Mechanics. Maizuru, Japan: Education and Research Supporting Center.
NZSEE (New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering) and EQC (Toka Tū Ake. Earthquake Commission New Zealand). 2022. Societal expectations for seismic performance of buildings. Wellington, New Zealand: NZSEE.
Palm, R., and R. M. Hodgson. 1992. After a California earthquake: Attitude and behaviour change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Pang, W., and S. Hassanzadeh. 2013. “Corotational model for cyclic analysis of light-frame wood shear walls and diaphragms.” J. Struct. Eng. 139 (Feb): 1303–1317. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000595.
Porter, K. 2021. “Should we build better? The case for resilient earthquake design in the United States.” Earthquake Spectra 37 (1): 523–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755293020944186.
Rainer, H., and E. Karacabeyli. 2000. “Performance of wood-frame construction in earthquakes.” In Vol. 30 of Proc., World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Wood Engineering Scientist.
SNZ (Standards New Zealand). 1999. Code of Practice for light timber frame buildings not requiring specific design. Wellington, New Zealand: SNZ.
SNZ (Standards New Zealand). 2004. Structural design actions. Part 5: Earthquake actions—New Zealand. NZS 1170.5:2004. Wellington, New Zealand: SNZ.
SNZ (Standards New Zealand). 2011. Code of Practice for light timber frame buildings not requiring specific design. Wellington, New Zealand: SNZ.
Stirling, M., et al. 2012. “National seismic hazard model for New Zealand: 2010 update.” Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 102 (4): 1514–1542. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120110170.
Sumida, K., H. Isoda, T. Mori, K. Tanaka, and S. Tesfamariam. 2019. “Experimental seismic response of a Japanese conventional wooden house using 2016 Kumamoto earthquake records.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 33 (2): 04019014. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0001267.
Sutley, E. J., and J. W. Van de Lindt. 2016. “Evolution of predicted seismic performance for wood-frame buildings.” J. Archit. Eng. 22 (3): B4016004. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000212.
Sutley, E. J., J. W. Van de Lindt, and L. Peek. 2017. “Multihazard analysis: Integrated engineering and social science approach.” J. Struct. Eng. 143 (9): 04017107. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001846.
Swensen, S. 2014. Seismically enhanced light-frame residential structures. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ.
Swensen, S., G. Deierlein, E. Miranda, B. Fell, C. Acevedo, and E. Jampole. 2017. Performance-based seismic assessment of a wood-frame house with strength and stiffness enhancements. In Proc., World Conf. in Earthquake Engineering. Menlo Park, CA: Exponent, Inc.
Takatani, T. 2011. “Relationship between seismic index and response of RC structure retrofitted by ACM braces.” Procedia Eng. 14 (Nov): 543–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.07.068.
Takatani, T. 2013. “Application of ACM brace retrofitting countermeasure to steel structure.” Procedia Eng. 54 (Jan): 729–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2013.03.067.
Tanner, A., S. Chang, and K. Elwood. 2020. “Incorporating societal expectations into seismic performance objectives in building codes.” Earthquake Spectra 36 (4): 2165–2176. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755293020919417.
Thomas, G., and J. Irvine. 2008. “Retrofitting house foundations to resist earthquakes; justification, benefits and costs.” In Proc., World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Wellington, New Zealand: Univ. of Wellington.
Thomas, G., B. Kim, G. Beattie, and R. Shelton. 2013. “Lessons from the performance of houses in the canterbury earthquake sequence of 2010–11.” In Proc., New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering Annual Conf. Wellington, New Zealand: Univ. of Wellington.
Thomas, G., and K. McGowan. 2011. “Retrofit options for residential house foundations to resist earthquakes.” In Proc., 9th Pacific Conf. on Earthquake Engineering 2011. Wellington, New Zealand: Univ. of Wellington.
Thomas, G., and R. Shelton. 2012. “Performance of house lining and cladding systems in the 22 February Lyttleton earthquake.” In Proc., 2012 NZSEE Conf. Wellington, New Zealand: Univ. of Wellington.
Thomas, G. C., and R. H. Shelton. 2021. “Adequacy and retro-fitting of house foundations on slopes.” In Proc., NZSEE 2021 Annual Conf. Wellington, New Zealand: Univ. of Wellington.
Todd, D., N. Carino, R. Chung, H. Lew, A. Taylor, W. Walton, and J. Cooper. 1994. 1994 Northridge earthquake. Performance of structures, lifelines and protection systems. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, DOT.
Tuphy, R., and S. Stephens. 2016. “Older adults’ meanings of preparedness: A New Zealand perspective.” Ageing Soc. 36 (3): 613–630. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X14001408.
van de Lindt, J., P. Bahmani, G. Mochizuki, S. Pryor, M. Gershfeld, J. Tian. 2016. “Experimental seismic behaviour of a full-scale four-story soft-story wood-frame building with retrofits. II: Shake table test results.” J. Struct. Eng. 142 (4): E4014004. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001206.
Van de Lindt, J., D. Rosowsky, W. Pang, and S. Pei. 2014. “Performance-based seismic design of midrise woodframe buildings.” J. Struct. Eng. 39 (8): 1294–1302. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000653.
Van de Lindt, J., M. Symans, W. Pang, X. Shao, and M. Gershfeld. 2012. “The NEES-soft project: Seismic risk reduction for soft-story woodframe buildings.” In Proc., World Conf. Earthquake Engineering. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State Univ.
Yamazaki, Y., K. Kasai, and H. Sakata. 2010. “Torsional seismic response reduction by passive control devise for conventional post-and-beam one-story wooden house with stiffness eccentricity.” In Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Urban Earthquake Engineering (7CUEE) & 5th Int. Conf. on Earthquake Engineering (5ICEE). Tokyo: Tokyo Institute of Technology.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Natural Hazards Review
Volume 24 • Issue 4 • November 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Nov 29, 2022
Accepted: Apr 28, 2023
Published online: Jul 24, 2023
Published in print: Nov 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Dec 24, 2023
ASCE Technical Topics:
- Building materials
- Buildings
- Earthquake engineering
- Engineering fundamentals
- Engineering materials (by type)
- Geomechanics
- Geotechnical engineering
- Materials engineering
- Residential buildings
- Seismic effects
- Seismic tests
- Slopes
- Structural behavior
- Structural engineering
- Structural strength
- Structures (by type)
- Tests (by type)
- Wood and wood products
- Wood structures
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.