Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Cladding–Girt Systems Subjected to Blast Loading
Publication: Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 149, Issue 5
Abstract
During an external detonation, blast-induced loads are initially exerted on the cladding system of a building. If properly designed, the dynamic reactions of the cladding to the supporting structure can be such that the consequences to the supporting structure are reduced, thereby avoiding extensive damage to the building frame. This behavior was examined in this study with a small-scale blast test on two specimens with different stiffness and strength characteristics. Specifically, two steel cladding types were tested, one comprising a solid plate and the other one a stiffened panel. The specimens of the two facade types were attached to girts of identical geometry, representing the supporting structure, and were exposed to the same blast load. Maximum and permanent displacements of the girts were measured as an index of the influence of the cladding types to the response of the supporting structure. Significantly lower displacements were exhibited in the girts of the solid plate in contrast to those of the stiffened panel, highlighting that the relatively lower flexure capacity of the solid plate compared with the flexure capacity of the stiffened panel was advantageous for the supporting structure. Furthermore, nonlinear transient finite-element analyses of the test were performed and compared well against the experimental data.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request:
•
Numerical models (limited access may be provided upon request to the corresponding author).
Acknowledgments
This research is cofinanced by Greece and the European Union [European Social Fund (ESF)] through the Operational Programme “Human Resources Development, Education and Lifelong Learning” in the context of the project “Strengthening Human Resources Research Potential via Doctorate Research—2nd Cycle” (MIS-5000432), implemented by the State Scholarships Foundation (IKY). For the experimental investigation of the response of steel cladding subjected to blast loading, which was conducted by the National Technical University of Athens’ (NTUA’s) Institute of Steel Structures, the explosions were performed by the Land Minefield Clearance and EOD Battalion in the context of the memorandum of cooperation between NTUA and the Engineer Officers’ Technical School (EOTS) of the Greek Army. Sponsors and fabricators of the experimental setup were the companies Armos Precast SA (precast reinforced concrete ground slab) and Kataskevastiki J. Dimitriou (steel cladding specimens, main steel support structure). Their support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
Abada, M., and A. Ibrahim. 2020. “Hybrid multi-cell thin-walled tubes for energy absorption applications: Blast shielding and crashworthiness.” Composites, Part B 183 (Feb): 107720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107720.
Abouzeid, M., R. R. Habib, S. Jabbour, A. H. Mokdad, and I. Nuwayhid. 2020. “Lebanon’s humanitarian crisis escalates after the Beirut blast.” Lancet 396 (10260): 1380–1382. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31908-5.
ASCE. 2011. Blast protection of buildings. ASCE/SEI 59-11. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Assal, T. H. 2020. “Blast protection wall systems: Literature review.” WIT Trans. Built Environ. 198: 93–109. https://doi.org/10.2495/SUSI200081.
Bornstein, H., and K. Ackland. 2013. “Evaluation of energy absorbing materials under blast loading.” WIT Trans. Eng. Sci. 77: 125–136. https://doi.org/10.2495/MC130111.
Cowper, G., and P. Symonds. 1957. Strain hardening and strain-rate effects in the impact loading of cantilever beam. Technical Rep. 28. Providence, RI: Brown Univ.
DNV (Det Norske Veritas) AS. 2013. Determination of structural capacity by non-linear FE analysis methods. DNV-RP-C208. Bærum, Norway: DNV.
Giovino, G., P. Olmati, S. Garbati, and F. Bontempi. 2014. “Blast resistance assessment of concrete wall panels: Experimental and numerical investigations.” Int. J. Prot. Struct. 5 (3): 349–366. https://doi.org/10.1260/2041-4196.5.3.349.
Grisaro, H. Y., J. A. Packer, and M. V. Seica. 2019. “Weak axis response of steel I-sections subjected to close-in detonations.” J. Constr. Steel Res. 160 (Sep): 189–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2019.05.025.
Hanssen, A. G., L. Enstock, and M. Langseth. 2002. “Close-range blast loading of aluminium foam panels.” Int. J. Impact Eng. 27 (6): 593–618. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-743X(01)00155-5.
Hudson, C. C. 1955. Sound pulse approximations to blast loading. Albuquerque, NM: Sandia.
Hyde, D. 1993. User’s guide for microcomputer program CONWEP, applications of TM 5-855-1, ‘Fundamentals of protective design for conventional weapons.’ Vicksburg, MS: US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment.
Ioannou, O., and C. J. Gantes. 2021. “Membrane action of cladding subjected to blast loading and effects on the supporting structure.” Vibration 4 (4): 768–786. https://doi.org/10.3390/vibration4040043.
Ioannou, O., M. Hadjioannou, and C. J. Gantes. 2022a. “A 2DOF method to study the influence of cladding characteristics on the response of the supporting structure under blast loading.” J. Struct. Eng. 148 (12): 04022191. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0003494.
Ioannou, O., M. Hadjioannou, and C. J. Gantes. 2022b. “Evaluation of the potential of cladding to mitigate blast effects on the supporting structure.” Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr. 27 (3): 04022022. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)SC.1943-5576.0000701.
Johnson, G. R., and W. H. Cook. 1983. “A constitutive model and data from metals subjected to large strains, high strain rates and high temperatures.” In Proc., 7th Int. Symp. Ballist. The Hague, Netherlands: Royal Netherlands Society for Engineers.
Karagiozova, D., G. N. Nurick, G. S. Langdon, S. C. K. Yuen, Y. Chi, and S. Bartle. 2009. “Response of flexible sandwich-type panels to blast loading.” Compos. Sci. Technol. 69 (6): 754–763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2007.12.005.
Khalifa, Y. A., M. J. Tait, and W. W. El-Dakhakhni. 2017. “Out-of-plane behavior of lightweight metallic sandwich panels.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 31 (5): 04017056. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0001018.
Kingery, C. N., and G. Bulmash. 1984. Air blast parameters from TNT spherical air burst and hemispherical surface air burst. Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: US Army Armament and Development Center, Ballistic Research Laboratory.
Ma, G. W., and Z. Q. Ye. 2007. “Energy absorption of double-layer foam cladding for blast alleviation.” Int. J. Impact Eng. 34 (2): 329–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2005.07.012.
McShane, G. J., D. D. Radford, V. S. Deshpande, and N. A. Fleck. 2006. “The response of clamped sandwich plates with lattice cores subjected to shock loading.” Eur. J. Mech. A. Solids 25 (2): 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euromechsol.2005.08.001.
Naito, C., R. Dinan, and B. Bewick. 2011. “Use of precast concrete walls for blast protection of steel stud construction.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 25 (5): 454–463. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000228.
Neuberger, A., S. Peles, and D. Rittel. 2007a. “Scaling the response of circular plates subjected to large and close-range spherical explosions. Part I: Air-blast loading.” Int. J. Impact Eng. 34 (5): 859–873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2006.04.001.
Neuberger, A., S. Peles, and D. Rittel. 2007b. “Scaling the response of circular plates subjected to large and close-range spherical explosions. Part II: Buried charges.” Int. J. Impact Eng. 34 (5): 874–882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2006.04.002.
Oswald, C. 2018. “Blast testing of energy absorbing connectors for blast resistant design.” WIT Trans. Built Environ. 180: 57–67. https://doi.org/10.2495/SUSI180061.
Palanivelu, S., W. Van Paepegem, J. Degrieck, B. Reymen, J.-M. Ndambi, J. Vantomme, D. Kakogiannis, J. Wastiels, and D. Van Hemelrijck. 2011. “Close-range blast loading on empty recyclable metal beverage cans for use in sacrificial cladding structure.” Eng. Struct. 33 (6): 1966–1987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.02.034.
PDC (Protective Design Center). 2008. Single degree of freedom structural response limits for antiterrorism design. PDC TR-06-08. Omaha, NE: USACE.
Radford, D. D., G. J. McShane, V. S. Deshpande, and N. A. Fleck. 2006. “The response of clamped sandwich plates with metallic foam cores to simulated blast loading.” Int. J. Solids Struct. 43 (7): 2243–2259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2005.07.006.
Reader, T. W., and P. O’Connor. 2014. “The Deepwater Horizon explosion: Non-technical skills, safety culture, and system complexity.” J. Risk Res. 17 (3): 405–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2013.815652.
Reid, S. R., and T. Y. Reddy. 1983. “Experimental investigation of inertia effects in one-dimensional metal ring systems subjected to end impact—I. Fixed-ended systems.” Int. J. Impact Eng. 1 (1): 85–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/0734-743X(83)90014-3.
Rigby, S. E., A. Tyas, and T. Bennett. 2012. “Single-degree-of-freedom response of finite targets subjected to blast loading—The influence of clearing.” Eng. Struct. 45 (Dec): 396–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2012.06.034.
Rutner, M. P., and J. P. Wright. 2016. “Duality of energy absorption and inertial effects: Optimized structural design for blast loading.” Int. J. Prot. Struct. 7 (1): 18–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041419615622726.
Schenker, A., I. Anteby, E. Gal, Y. Kivity, E. Nizri, O. Sadot, R. Michaelis, O. Levintant, and G. Ben-Dor. 2008. “Full-scale field tests of concrete slabs subjected to blast loads.” Int. J. Impact Eng. 35 (3): 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2006.12.008.
Schenker, A., I. Anteby, E. Nizri, B. Ostraich, Y. Kivity, O. Sadot, O. Haham, R. Michaelis, E. Gal, and G. Ben-Dor. 2005. “Foam-protected reinforced concrete structures under impact: Experimental and numerical studies.” J. Struct. Eng. 131 (8): 1233–1242. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2005)131:8(1233).
Silva, P. F., and B. Lu. 2009. “Blast resistance capacity of reinforced concrete slabs.” J. Struct. Eng. 135 (6): 708–716. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000011.
Tian, X., Q. Li, Z. Lu, and Z. Wang. 2016. “Experimental study of blast mitigation by foamed concrete.” Int. J. Prot. Struct. 7 (2): 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041419616633323.
Viau, C., and G. Doudak. 2021. “Energy-absorbing connection for heavy-timber assemblies subjected to blast loads—Concept development and application.” J. Struct. Eng. 147 (4): 04021027. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002975.
Whitney, M. G. 1996. Blast damage mitigation using reinforced concrete panels and energy absorbing connectors. Las Vegas, NV: Dept. of Defense Explosive Safety Board.
Wu, C., L. Huang, and D. J. Oehlers. 2011. “Blast testing of aluminum foam–protected reinforced concrete slabs.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 25 (5): 464–474. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000163.
Xue, Z., and J. W. Hutchinson. 2003. “Preliminary assessment of sandwich plates subject to blast loads.” Int. J. Mech. Sci. 45 (4): 687–705. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7403(03)00108-5.
Yuen, S. C. K., G. Cunliffe, and M. C. du Plessis. 2017. “Blast response of cladding sandwich panels with tubular cores.” Int. J. Impact Eng. 110 (Dec): 266–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2017.04.016.
Zhao, H., H. Yu, Y. Yuan, and H. Zhu. 2015. “Blast mitigation effect of the foamed cement-base sacrificial cladding for tunnel structures.” Constr. Build. Mater. 94 (Sep): 710–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.076.
Zhu, F., L. Zhao, G. Lu, and Z. Wang. 2008. “Deformation and failure of blast-loaded metallic sandwich panels—Experimental investigations.” Int. J. Impact Eng. 35 (8): 937–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2007.11.003.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 149 • Issue 5 • May 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jun 6, 2022
Accepted: Dec 22, 2022
Published online: Feb 23, 2023
Published in print: May 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Jul 23, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.