Estimating the Deep Decarbonization Benefits of the Electric Mobility Transition: A Review of Managed Charging Strategies and Second-Life Battery Uses
Publication: International Conference on Transportation and Development 2021
ABSTRACT
Emissions-reduction pathways in transportation are often characterized as a “three-legged stool,” where vehicle efficiency, fuel carbon content, and vehicle miles traveled (VMT) contribute to lower emissions. The electric mobility (e-mobility) transition provides fast savings, since plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) are nearly three times more energy efficient than internal combustion engines (ICEs), and most nations’ power grids are lowering their carbon intensity irrespective of any further climate policy. The transportation sector’s greenhouse gas (GHG) savings via electrification are subject to many variables, such as power plant feedstocks, vehicle charging locations and schedules, vehicle size and weight, driver behavior, and annual mileage, which are described in existing literature. Savings will also depend on emerging innovations, such as managed charging (MC) strategies and second-life battery use in energy storage systems (B2U-ESS). This paper’s review of MC strategies and B2U-ESS applications estimates additional GHG savings to be up to 33% if chargers are widely available for MC-enabled passenger cars and up to 100% if B2U-ESS abates peaker plants over its second-use lifetime. In this way, an e-mobility transition can deliver additional lifetime decarbonization benefits, both on- and off-road, long term.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this chapter.
REFERENCES
Ahmadi, L., Yip, A., Fowler, M., Young, S. B., and Fraser, R. A. Environmental feasibility of re-use of electric vehicle batteries. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 2014; 6: 64–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2014.01.006.
Ahmadi, L., Young, S. B., Fowler, M., Fraser, R. A., and Achachlouei, M. A. A cascaded life cycle: reuse of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery packs in energy storage systems. Int J Life Cycle Assess 2017; 22: 111–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-0959-7.
Alonso, M., Amaris, H., Germain, J. G., and Galan, J. M. Optimal Charging Scheduling of Electric Vehicles in Smart Grids by Heuristic Algorithms. Energies 2014; 7: 2449–75. https://doi.org/10.3390/en7042449.
Apostolaki-Iosifidou, E., Woo, S., and Lipman, T. Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Vehicle Charging Detection Using Utility Energy Consumption Data 2019.
Bauman, J., Stevens, M. B., Hacikyan, S., Tremblay, L., Mallia, E., and Mendes, C. J. Residential Smart- Charging Pilot Program in Toronto: Results of a Utility Controlled Charging Pilot. World Electr Veh J 2016; 8: 531–42. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj8020531.
BMW. BMW ChargeForward: Electric Vehicle Smart Charging Program. 2020.
BNEF. BNEF Electric Vehicle Outlook Report 2020. 2020.
Bobba, S., Mathieux, F., Ardente, F., Blengini, G. A., Cusenza, M. A., Podias, A., et al. Life Cycle Assessment of repurposed electric vehicle batteries: an adapted method based on modelling energy flows. J Energy Storage 2018; 19: 213–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2018.07.008.
Burke, A. Performance, Charging, and Second-use Considerations for Lithium Batteries for Plug- in Electric Vehicles. UC Davis: Institute of Transportation Studies; 2009.
Casals, L. C., García, B. A., Aguesse, F., and Iturrondobeitia, A. Second life of electric vehicle batteries: relation between materials degradation and environmental impact. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-0918-3.
Cheng, A. J., Tarroja, B., Shaffer, B., and Samuelsen, S. Comparing the emissions benefits of centralized vs. decentralized electric vehicle smart charging approaches: A case study of the year 2030 California electric grid. J Power Sources 2018; 401: 175–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.08.092.
Cicconi, P., Landi, D., Morbidoni, A., and Germani, M. Feasibility analysis of second life applications for Li-Ion cells used in electric powertrain using environmental indicators. 2012 IEEE Int. Energy Conf. Exhib. ENERGYCON, Florence, Italy: IEEE; 2012, p. 985–90. https://doi.org/10.1109/EnergyCon.2012.6348293.
Coignard, J., Saxena, S., Greenblatt, J., and Wang, D. Clean vehicles as an enabler for a clean electricity grid. Environ Res Lett 2018; 13:054031. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aabe97.
Cruise. Introducing the Cruise Origin. Self-Driven. All-Electric. Shared. Cruise 2020. https://www.getcruise.com/origin/.
Davis, S. C., and Boundy, R. G. Transportation Energy Data Book: Edition 37.2. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory; 2019.
Engel, H., Hertzke, P., and Siccardo, G. Electric vehicles, second life batteries, and their effect on the power sector | McKinsey 2019. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/second-life-ev-batteries-the-newest-value-pool-in-energy-storage.
Fan, E., Li, L., Wang, Z., Lin, J., Huang, Y., Yao, Y., et al. Sustainable Recycling Technology for Li- Ion Batteries and Beyond: Challenges and Future Prospects. Chem Rev 2020; 120: 7020–63. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00535.
Fares, R. L., and Webber, M. E. The impacts of storing solar energy in the home to reduce reliance on the utility. Nat Energy 2017; 2: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2017.1.
Fisher, M. J., and Apt, J. Emissions and Economics of Behind-the-Meter Electricity Storage. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51: 1094–101. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b03536.
FleetCarma. Charge the North: Results from the world’s largest electric vehicle charging study 2019.
Forrest, K. E., Tarroja, B., Zhang, L., Shaffer, B., and Samuelsen, S. Charging a renewable future: The impact of electric vehicle charging intelligence on energy storage requirements to meet renewable portfolio standards. J Power Sources 2016; 336: 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.10.048.
Gan, L., Topcu, U., and Low, S. H. Optimal decentralized protocol for electric vehicle charging. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2013; 28: 940–51. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2012.2210288.
García-Villalobos, J., Zamora, I., San Martín, J. I., Asensio, F. J., and Aperribay, V. Plug-in electric vehicles in electric distribution networks: A review of smart charging approaches. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014; 38: 717–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.040.
Goody, M. EV Growing Pains - the evolution of electric vehicles and their growing impact on the electric grid 2020.
Green Technology Laboratory. UC Davis RMI Winery Microgrid Project. UC Davis Coll Eng 2019. http://mae.engr.ucdavis.edu/jwpark/DavisSite/pages/BWF-microgrid.html.
Harper, G., Sommerville, R., Kendrick, E., Driscoll, L., Slater, P., Stolkin, R., et al. Recycling lithium- ion batteries from electric vehicles. Nature 2019; 575: 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5.
Henze, V. Battery Pack Prices Fall As Market Ramps Up With Market Average At $156/kWh In 2019. BloombergNEF 2019.
Hertzke, P., Müller, N., Schaufuss, P., Schenk, S., and Wu, T. Expanding electric-vehicle adoption despite EV market growing pains | McKinsey 2019. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/expanding-electric-vehicle-adoption-despite-early-growing-pains#.
Hilshey, A. D., Hines, P. D. H., Rezaei, P., and Dowds, J. R. Estimating the Impact of Electric Vehicle Smart Charging on Distribution Transformer Aging. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2013; 4: 905–13.
Hoehne, C. G., and Chester, M. V. Optimizing plug-in electric vehicle and vehicle-to-grid charge scheduling to minimize carbon emissions. Energy 2016; 115: 646–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.09.057.
Hu, J., Morais, H., Sousa, T., and Lind, M. Electric vehicle fleet management in smart grids: A review of services, optimization and control aspects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016; 56: 1207–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.014.
Hussain, M. T., Sulaiman, N. B., Hussain, M. S., and Jabir, M. Optimal Management strategies to solve issues of grid having Electric Vehicles (EV): A review. J Energy Storage 2021; 33: 102114.
IEA. Global EV Outlook 2020. Paris: 2020.
IEA. World Energy Outlook 2019. Paris, France: IEA; 2019.
IER. The Afterlife of Electric Vehicles: Battery Recycling and Repurposing 2019. https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/the-afterlife-of-electric-vehicles-battery-recycling-and-repurposing/.
Jacoby, M. It’s time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion batteries. Chem Eng News 2019; 97.
Jochem, P., Babrowski, S., and Fichtner, W. Assessing CO 2 emissions of electric vehicles in Germany in 2030. Transp Res Part Policy Pract 2015; 78: 68–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.05.007.
Kamath, D., Shukla, S., Arsenault, R., Kim, H. C., and Anctil, A. Evaluating the cost and carbon footprint of second-life electric vehicle batteries in residential and utility-level applications. Waste Manag 2020; 113: 497–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.05.034.
Khowaja, A., Dean, M. D., and Kockelman, K. M. Quantifying the Emissions Impact of Repurposed EV Battery Packs in Residential Settings 2021.
Lambert, F. Tesla battery degradation at less than 10% after over 160,000 miles, according to latest data. Electrek 2018. https://electrek.co/2018/04/14/tesla-battery-degradation-data/.
Lantero, A. How Microgrids Work. EnergyGov 2014. https://www.energy.gov/articles/how-microgrids-work.
Lutsey, N., and Nicholas, M. Update on electric vehicle costs in the United States through 2030. San Francisco, CA: ICCT; 2019.
Malcho, M., and Kelly, K. Used Chevrolet Volt Batteries Help Power New IT Building. MediaGmCom 2015. https://media.gm.com/content/media/us/en/gm/news.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2015/jun/0616-volt-battery.html.
Martinez-Laserna, E., Gandiaga, I., Sarasketa-Zabala, E., Badeda, J., Stroe, D.-I., Swierczynski, M., et al. Battery second life: Hype, hope or reality? A critical review of the state of the art. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018; 93: 701–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.035.
Masoum, A. S., Deilami, S., Moses, P. S., Masoum, M. A. S., and Abu-Siada, A. Smart load management of plug-in electric vehicles in distribution and residential networks with charging stations for peak shaving and loss minimisation considering voltage regulation. IET Gener Transm Amp Distrib 2011; 5: 877–88. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-gtd.2010.0574.
McKerracher, C., and Albanese, N. 2020 Electric Vehicle Outlook: U.S. Update 2020.
McLaren, J., Miller, J., O’Shaughnessy, E., Wood, E., and Shapiro, E. CO2 emissions associated with electric vehicle charging: The impact of electricity generation mix, charging infrastructure availability and vehicle type. Electr J 2016; 29: 72–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2016.06.005.
Micek, K. Analysis: Curtailments rising with renewables increasing on the Cal-ISO grid. Houston, TX: 2020.
Milovanoff, A., Posen, I. D., and MacLean, H. L. Electrification of light-duty vehicle fleet alone will not meet mitigation targets. Nat Clim Change 2020: 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-00921-7.
MnDOT (Minnesota Department of Transportation). Pathways to Decarbonizing Transportation in Minnesota. Minnesota Department of Transportation; 2019.
Motavalli, J. Soon, the Kitty Litter Will Come by Electric Truck. N Y Times 2020.
Myers, E. Beyond load growth: The EV managed charging opportunity for utilities 2017. https://sepapower.org/knowledge/beyond-load-growth-ev-managed-charging-opportunity-utilities/.
Nealer, R., and Hendrickson, T. P. Review of Recent Lifecycle Assessments of Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Electric Vehicles. Curr Sustain Energy Rep 2015; 2: 66–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40518-015-0033-x.
Neubauer, J., and Pesaran, A. The ability of battery second use strategies to impact plug-in electric vehicle prices and serve utility energy storage applications. J Power Sources 2011; 196: 10351–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.06.053.
Neubauer, J., Smith, K., Wood, E., and Pesaran, A. Identifying and Overcoming Critical Barriers to Widespread Second Use of PEV Batteries. 2015. https://doi.org/10.2172/1171780.
NREL. 2020 Transportation Annual Technology Baseline. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory; 2020.
Nyberg, M. California Solar Energy Statistics and Data. Calif Energy Comm 2020. https://ww2.energy.ca.gov/almanac/renewables_data/solar/index_cms.php.
Pellow, M. A., Ambrose, H., Mulvaney, D., Betita, R., and Shaw, S. Research gaps in environmental life cycle assessments of lithium ion batteries for grid-scale stationary energy storage systems: End-of-life options and other issues. Sustain Mater Technol 2020; 23:e00120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2019.e00120.
PG&E. BMW i Charge Forward: PG&E’s Electric Vehicle Smart Charging Pilot. 2017.
POWER. EV Batteries Repurposed for Energy Storage. POWER Mag 2018. https://www.powermag.com/ev-batteries-repurposed-for-energy-storage/.
Reid, G., and Julve, J. Second Life-Batteries As Flexible Storage For Renewables Energies. Hannover, Germany: Bundesverband Erneuerbare Energie e.V. (BEE); 2016.
Ricketts, S., Cliffton, R., Oduyeru, L., and Holland, B. States Are Laying a Road Map for Climate Leadership - Center for American Progress. Energy Environ 2020. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/reports/2020/04/30/484163/states-laying-road-map-climate-leadership/.
Sathre, R., Scown, C. D., Kavvada, O., and Hendrickson, TP. Energy and climate effects of second-life use of electric vehicle batteries in California through 2050. J Power Sources 2015; 288: 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.04.097.
Schmid, A. Daimler baut Batteriespeicher in altem Kohlekraftwerk. Edison - Heim Gener E 2018. https://edison.media/erleben/daimler-baut-batteriespeicher-in-altem-kohlekraftwerk/22824674.html.
Schmidt, E. How Electric Vehicle Batteries Are Reused or Recycled. FleetCarma 2018. https://www.fleetcarma.com/electric-vehicle-batteries-reused-recycled/.
SEPA. SEPA’s Utility Carbon Reduction Tracker. SEPA Util Transform Chall 2020. https://sepapower.org/utility-transformation-challenge/utility-carbon-reduction-tracker/.
Shepardson, D. Nevada to join other states in adopting California zero emission vehicle rules. Reuters 2020.
Sivak, M., and Schoettle, B. On-Road Fuel Economy of Vehicles In The United States: 1923-2015. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan; 2017.
Slowik, P., Hall, D., Lutsey, N., Nicholas, M., and Wappelhorst, S. Funding the Transition to All Zero- Emission Vehicles 2019.
Steinberg, D., Bielen, D., Eichman, J., Eurek, K., Logan, J., Mai, T., et al. Electrification & Decarbonization: Exploring U.S. Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Scenarios with Widespread Electrification and Power Sector Decarbonization. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory; 2017.
Szinai, J. K., Sheppard, C. J. R., Abhyankar, N., and Gopal, A. R. Reduced grid operating costs and renewable energy curtailment with electric vehicle charge management. Energy Policy 2020; 136:111051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111051.
Tamayao, M.-A. M., Michalek, J. J., Hendrickson, C., and Azevedo, I. M. L. Regional Variability and Uncertainty of Electric Vehicle Life Cycle CO2 Emissions across the United States. Environ Sci Technol 2015; 49: 8844–55. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00815.
Tarroja, B., Shaffer, B., and Samuelsen, S. The importance of grid integration for achievable greenhouse gas emissions reductions from alternative vehicle technologies. Energy 2015; 87: 504–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.05.012.
The Mobility House. Intelligent software from The Mobility House makes an entire island fossil free 2019. https://www.mobilityhouse.com/int_en/magazine/press-releases/intelligent-software-from-the-mobility-house-makes-an-entire-island-fossil-free.html/.
van Triel, F., and Lipman, T. E. Modeling the Future California Electricity Grid and Renewable Energy Integration with Electric Vehicles. Energies 2020; 13: 5277. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205277.
Tu, R., and Gai, Y. (Jessie), Farooq, B., Posen, D., and Hatzopoulou, M. Electric vehicle charging optimization to minimize marginal greenhouse gas emissions from power generation. Appl Energy 2020; 277:115517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115517.
U.S. EPA. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2018. Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency; 2020.
U.S. EPA. Fast Facts on Transportation Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Green Veh Guide 2019. https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/fast-facts-transportation-greenhouse-gas-emissions.
Webber, M. E. Pathways to Net-Zero Emissions in Texas 2020.
Williams, J. H., Haley, B., Kahrl, F., Moore, J., Jones, A. D., McJeon, H., et al. Pathways to Deep Decarbonization in the United States. San Francisco, CA: Energy and Environmental Economics, Inc; 2014.
Woo, J., Choi, H., and Ahn, J. Well-to-wheel analysis of greenhouse gas emissions for electric vehicles based on electricity generation mix: A global perspective. Transp Res Part Transp Environ 2017; 51: 340–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.01.005.
Zhang, J., Jorgenson, J., Markel, T., and Walkowicz, K. Value to the Grid From Managed Charging Based on California’s High Renewables Study. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2019; 34: 831–40. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2018.2872905.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
International Conference on Transportation and Development 2021
Pages: 26 - 38
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Published online: Jun 4, 2021
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.