Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

In this study, an interactive fuzzy-boundary interval programming (IFBIP) method is developed to plan water resources management under uncertain conditions. IFBIP is capable of addressing dual uncertainties expressed as fuzzy-boundary intervals, as well as analyzing the reliability of satisfying (or the risk of violating) various constraints. The IFBIP method is then applied to the water resources management of the Hetao Basin (located in Inner Mongolia, China), one of the largest irrigation areas and the main food-producing region in the Yellow River Basin, where water scarcity is a major constraint for socioeconomic development. Results of water-allocation pattern and system benefit have been obtained under different feasibility degrees. Results reveal that agricultural irrigation is still the largest water consumer, compared with the other users such as industry, municipality, and livestock; meanwhile, irrigation water in each subarea is mainly from the Yellow River over the planning horizon. Moreover, water-saving technology and irrigation regime are relative backward, leading to more inefficient water usage. The findings can facilitate local managers in generating desired decisions of water-related activities with maximized system benefit and minimized water shortage.

A key operational objective for the management of the Indus Basin Irrigation System of Pakistan is the distribution of water among tertiary canals in a transparent and equitable manner. Decisions on canal operations are disseminated as a Canal Operation Plan, or a Rotational Program, for each crop season for every canal system. The current practice for developing these plans is qualitative based on heuristics that have remain unchanged since the early development of this vast irrigation system. This paper uses operations research tools to develop a Canal Operations Planner. Allocation cost is defined as a function of the delivery performance ratio and maximizing this function. The performance of the modules is evaluated using spillage and the Gini index as a measure of equity. Two models, namely; linear programme-delivery performance ratio (LP-DPR) and non linear programme-delivery performance ratio (NLP-DPR) are presented and the results are compared to performance under current canal planning and operational practice. Both models improve the equity when compared to existing operations. The NLP-DPR model outperforms the LP-DPR both on equity and minimizing spillage.

Equity of water distribution is an oft-repeated and stated aim of the warabandi irrigation systems prevalent in Pakistan and parts of India. The Canal Operations Plan is one tool used to operationalize equitable distribution of water. These plans are created for every canal system every crop season. This companion paper applies operations research tools to this problem and explicitly minimizes inequity as measured by the Gini index of the cumulative depth of water supplied. The results are analyzed and compared with those obtained from the models of the companion paper that maximize delivery performance ratio (DPR) and conclude that the linear programme-delivery performance ratio (LP-DPR) model given in the companion paper is overall slightly superior to the linear programme-inequity (LP-INEQ) model presented in this paper. This paper highlights that a performance indicator of equity such as the Gini may not fully capture the sense of fairness from a farmer’s perspective. Application of this research is demonstrated through an engineering application in the preparation of a canal operations plan for the summer 2016 and winter 2016–2017 crop season.

The nonlinear Muskingum model is a hydrologic flood-routing method useful when the storage flow relation departs from the classic linear assumption. This paper extends versions of the nonlinear Muskingum model by introducing a parameterized initial storage condition. The extended nonlinear Muskingum values have an increased number of degrees of freedom that allows an enhanced capacity to accurately predict outflow hydrographs provided that parameter estimation is optimized as proposed in this work. The parameters of the nonlinear Muskingum models are estimated with the weed optimization algorithm (WOA), and the excellent performance of the extended nonlinear Muskingum models is demonstrated with several types of hydrographs using several criteria of statistical efficiency. The implementation results show that the nonlinear Muskingum model’s predictions outperform those of the best results reported with other routing models for the examples presented in this paper.

Net radiation ($R_n$) values are necessary for estimating evapotranspiration. Accurate measurement of its four components is made with pyranometers and pyrgeometers. Measurement of $R_n$ is made also with net radiometers at a lower cost. They are equipped with polyethylene hemispherical domes to reduce natural ventilation and thermal convection. Domeless net radiometers (NR-Lite) are used to reduce maintenance and care. In this work a comparison was made with the measurements of a domed net radiometer (Q-7.1). Also, a comparison between two NR-Lite net radiometers was made. Measurements using the NR-Lite were less than that measured with the Q-7.1 with underestimations ranging from 8 to 12%. The NR-Lite had been continuously working for three years and had not been recalibrated. This may have been the cause of this increasing error over time. The differences between measurements of both types of sensors increased with wind speed. Also, a diurnal dependence of sensor measurements with the solar elevation angle was detected. Both net radiometers performed well for estimating daily and hourly Penman–Monteith ASCE reference evapotranspiration ($E{T}_o$). However, when daily estimations were obtained from hourly calculations, the Q-7.1 net radiometer showed more accuracy to estimate $E{T}_o$. The overall conclusion of this study is that the NR-Lite net radiometer can be used with confidence at locations where sensor maintenance is difficult.

This paper evaluates the performances of two long-term prediction approaches for streamflow and riverine total dissolve solids (TDS) and compares their results with observed data and with short-term predicted values. The future values predicted by the first, long-term, prediction approach (Approach 1) depend on data corresponding to time steps prior to the prediction time step. The future values predicted by the second, long-term, prediction approach (Approach 2) depend on data comprised within the observational period. Each long-term prediction approach calculates streamflow and TDS over a 12-month period ranging from April through March (Scheme 1) and by agricultural water year (December through November, Scheme 2). Genetic programming (GP) is implemented for long-term prediction. Prediction is applied to the streamflow and TDS of the Karoon River in southwestern Iran. The long-term Approach 1 was found to be more accurate than the long-term Approach 2 judged by the values of several diagnostic statistics. The root mean square error (RMSE), correlation coefficient ($R^2$), and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency ($E$) statistics of long-term predictions of streamflow and TDS with Approach 1 are lower than those obtained with the long-term prediction Approach 2 for April–March and for the agricultural water-year predictions. It is concluded that prediction of the Karoon River’s streamflow and TDS is best accomplished using GP in combination with the long-term prediction Approach 1.

Full implicit solutions are constructed for all terms of the Saint–Venant equations and advection–dispersion equation. Thereafter, a global coefficient matrix for forming algebraic equations is established to realize the simultaneous solution of both surface water flow and solute transport equations and a full-coupled model between the surface water flow and solute transport is constructed for basin fertigation. This model completely eliminates splitting errors, which exist in common solutions for both of the aforementioned equations. Moreover, the proposed model can take any time steps and is no longer constrained by stability conditions, such as the CFL (Courant, Friedrichs and Lewy) number and Peclet number. These advantages of the full-coupled model obviously improve the computational efficiency and accuracy, and its applicability in practical simulations. Three basin fertigation experiments are conducted to validate the performance of the proposed full-coupled model. The results show that the developed model achieves good fit between the simulated and observed results, and presents more efficiency than the existing model.

Crop planning and water resources allocation to meet agricultural demand in arid and semiarid regions such as Iran are a serious challenge. One of the procedures to meet this challenge is to devise approaches for determining the optimal crop patterns based on the limited water resources. In this study, a simulation-optimization approach was applied in which a soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) has been applied for simulating the complex climate–soil–plant relationships. The harmony search (HS) algorithm has been coupled with SWAT to find the optimal irrigation plan and crop pattern in two scenarios in the Azadegan plain in the Karkheh basin in southeastern Iran. In the first scenario, the crop pattern was the variable of the model while in the second one, it was predefined as the existing situation in the plain. The objective function of the coupled model was to maximize the net profit subject to the total available land and water constraints. Results obtained by the developed model show that the net profit gained in the plain has a potential of increasing up to 213% in the first and 25% in the second scenario while the water consumption decreased by 28 and 48%, respectively, compared to the present situation of the plain. Accordingly, the performance of the HS-SWAT model indicates its capability for solving optimum crop-pattern and irrigation-planning problems.

Sediment runoff rates from construction sites can be substantially higher than those of other land uses. Construction stormwater regulations require detailed stormwater pollution prevention plans to minimize environmental impacts associated with construction activities. Sediment basins are temporary sediment control measures used to detain and treat stormwater runoff on-site prior to discharge. This study developed SEDspread, a user-friendly spreadsheet-based design tool for designers to appropriately size temporary sediment basin parameters. The workbook allows users to input site-specific parameters and constraints to determine basin capacity and configuration, surface skimmer size and dewatering rate, auxiliary spillway design, and baffle configuration. The workbook includes a summary sheet that provides users with schematics of the designed basin, available as a supplement to facilitate effective communication between designers and contractors for constructing and installing the basin. SEDspread includes geospatially derived and referenced data that allow for automated selection of design hydrologic and soil conditions through the input of a project location’s U.S. ZIP code. A hydrologic analysis was performed to relate input hydrologic and soil parameters to 2-year, 24-h design volume sizing factors to contain all design storm runoff. To showcase the capabilities of the developed workbook, a case study was performed to compare the actual designs of two construction site sediment basins to the designs generated through SEDspread. The case study resulted in a volumetric difference factors of 3.0, indicating the basins were severely underdesigned for the local 2-year, 24-h design rainfall.

Total dissolved solids (TDS) may enter reservoirs at high concentrations during flooding events. The release of TDS from reservoirs depends on water quality stratification within them. This paper presents an approach for the optimal operation of a reservoir with two objectives: (1) the minimization of TDS in reservoir releases, and (2) the minimization of the temperature difference between inflow to the reservoir and released water from the reservoir. The Karaj reservoir in Iran is operated to optimize these two objectives. The reservoir has two water outlets with an elevation difference equal to 40 m. Water quality and 2D hydrodynamic modeling is carried out with the model CE-QUAL-W2, which is coupled with the nondominated sorting genetic algorithm-II (NSGA-II) to produce a simulation-optimization method. The simulation-optimization method is applied to the Karaj reservoir operation under four scenarios (seasons). The paper’s results indicate enhanced reservoir operation with two-outlet releases compared with one-outlet releases. Specifically, the TDS in reservoir releases and the temperature difference between inflow into and released water from the reservoir achieved with two-outlet operation are 11.81 and 4.02% lower than those achieved with single-outlet operation, respectively.

Hydraulic methods can model channel flow with high accuracy using data related to channel geometry and flow regime that render the computational effort burdensome. In contrast, hydrologic methods apply simplifying assumptions in their algorithms for flow routing. This paper implements genetic programming (GP) to calculate hydrographs in simple and compound channels. Predicted hydrographs for the simple and compound channels are compared with those predicted by a Muskingum model and a one-dimensional (1D) coupled characteristic-dissipative-Galerkin (CCDG-1D) procedure. Results show that the differences between predicted hydrographs by GP and modeled hydrographs by the Muskingum and CCDG-1D methods are similar in simple and compound channels. Moreover, GP yields acceptable predicted hydrographs with decreased computational burden. These results indicate that the proposed GP method is effective in the prediction of open-channel flow.

Hydraulic structure undermining attributable to scour can cause structural damage or collapse. Experiments were performed in a laboratory channel on scour downstream of a stilling basin of a low-head spillway to ascertain the feasibility of air injection for scour reduction, an idea that has not been previously attempted. Various hydraulic flow conditions without air injection indicate that the condition of stilling basin water elevation lower than the spillway crest, under high headwater-to-tailwater depth ratio, results in the deepest scour. Over 120 experiments were performed to determine the optimal parameters for scour reduction by air injection. It was found that optimal scour-reducing conditions consist of (1) air injection at an air-to-water velocity ratio of 251, (2) vertical air injection at the same elevation as the stilling basin exit point, (3) using diffuser hole diameters corresponding to a ratio of air-to-water velocity equal to 251 spanning the entire width of the stilling basin, and (4) a diffuser hole spacing 0.04 times the diffuser width. Scour can thus be reduced by approximately 59% near the structure. Air compressors and diffuser pipe diameter and hole sizes corresponding to these conditions would be required in prototype installations.

The most comprehensive tools for producing climatic scenarios and consequently hydrological predictions are atmospheric-ocean general circulation models (AOGCMs). This paper evaluates the performance of those models. Possible scenarios of temperature and rainfall in the base period (1971–2000) for the Aidoghmoush basin located in East Azerbaijan are estimated with seven AOGCMs. A hydrological model is first calibrated for the basin and then monthly time series of temperature and rainfall resulting from AOGCMs in the base period are input to the hydrological model. The mean observed runoff (MOR) weighting method is employed to assess the effectiveness of each climate model to produce runoff. An appropriate probability distribution is chosen and relevant statistical parameters extracted and compared with observed runoff statistical parameters. Results show that the hybrid and Hadley Centre Coupled Model, version 3 (HadCM3) models with respective correlation coefficients of 97% [root mean square error $(\mathrm{RMSE})=2.09{\mathrm{m}}^3/\mathrm{s}$, mean absolute error $(\mathrm{MAE})=1.51{\mathrm{m}}^3/\mathrm{s}$, and Nash Sutcliffe efficiency $(\mathrm{NSE})=0.89$] for the hybrid model and 90% ($\mathrm{RMSE}=3.22{\mathrm{m}}^3/\mathrm{s}$, $\mathrm{MAE}=2.58{\mathrm{m}}^3/\mathrm{s}$, and $\mathrm{NSE}=0.87$) for the HadCM3 model can best simulate runoff. Comparison of the results of the probability distributions and the transition probability matrix from the AOGCM models with observed runoff shows that the hybrid and HadCM3 models with respective correlation coefficients of 91% ($\mathrm{RMSE}=0.07{\mathrm{m}}^3/\mathrm{s}$, $\mathrm{MAE}=0.004{\mathrm{m}}^3/\mathrm{s}$, and $\mathrm{NSE}=0.80$) and 86% ($\mathrm{RMSE}=0.14{\mathrm{m}}^3/\mathrm{s}$, $\mathrm{MAE}=0.04{\mathrm{m}}^3/\mathrm{s}$, and $\mathrm{NSE}=0.78$) yield reliable outputs.

Central and eastern parts of the Black Sea Region in Turkey are pivotal in production of hazelnut and tea. The soils are vulnerable to leaching of nutrients and water erosion, and the need of mapping and assessment of possible risks is growing. Information about soil hydraulic properties is required for this purpose; however, it has been scarcely determined in the area. This study aimed to contribute in filling the gap. Arable land of eight provinces (Sinop, Samsun, Ordu, Giresun, Trabzon, Gümüşhane, Rize, and Artvin) was investigated using 3,400 disturbed soil samples from the surface layer. Intersections of grid squares $2.5\times 2.5\mathrm{km}$ were sampled and analyzed. Ten models of pedotransfer functions available in the literature were tested for estimation of field capacity (FC), wilting point (WP), and available water capacity (AWC). The reliability of estimations was tested and evaluated on available data from five testing localities (382 samples). Finally, the values of FC, WP, and AWC were estimated by the k-Nearest code with satisfactory reliability, and spatial distribution maps of these properties were created using the geographic information system (GIS) technique.

Side-weir detention basins have been increasingly highlighted as an alternative countermeasure for decreasing peak flood discharge and have become increasingly adopted as part of an integrated watershed flood protection plan. However, there were few methodologies sufficient enough to quantitatively estimate the decrease of the peak flow by the side-weir detention basin in flood-control measures by fully considering relevant design and hydraulic parameters. Until now, any noticeable standardized design procedure to optimally design the size of a side-weir located at the inlet of a detention basin has not been available. In this study, a generalized design procedure was proposed for determining the horizontal length of a side-weir considering hydraulic parameters, especially for the bed roughness as a major hydraulic parameter, where other hydraulic parameters were assumed to be invariant and restricted by field conditions. The proposed design procedure is exemplified based on a simple numerical model detailed herein. In particular, the design procedure considers complex overflow regimes dominated by free and submerged overflow between the main channel and detention basin through the side-weir. Subsequently, a concept for a flood control performance graph is suggested for evaluating the decrease of peak flow for design and hydraulic parameters of the side-weir, such as the bed roughness and the length of side-weir, respectively. Also, a design characteristic line is also proposed to finally determine the optimal length of side-weir.

Infiltration in irrigated furrows depends on the variation of depth of flow and, thus, wetted perimeter along the field and in time. However, the magnitude of the wetted perimeter effect has not been clearly established due to soil variability, erosion and deposition, macropore flow, and other processes that affect the infiltration process. Hence, furrow irrigation models currently offer various alternatives, mostly empirical but some physical, for modeling the infiltration process as a function of wetted perimeter. In principle, the selected modeling approach can have a significant impact on the predicted performance. This is of particular importance for operation and design analyses cases in which performance is examined, respectively, over a wide range of inflow rates and physical configurations. A simulation study was conducted to examine the operational solutions that can be developed with different furrow infiltration models. The analysis was based on the modeling options offered by a software package developed by U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS). The analysis was conducted under the assumption that the true infiltration characteristics of the example furrow were given by a semiphysically based infiltration model. Performance contours and operational solutions were developed for a free draining and blocked furrow. Results show that operational solutions can be very sensitive to the infiltration modeling approach with a free draining system, but less sensitive with blocked systems.