Ports 2016: Port Engineering

The Port of Tacoma operates the 23-hectare (56-acre) Olympic Container Terminal, 5-hectare (12-acre) North Intermodal Yard, and 9-hectare (22-acre) South Intermodal Yard located in Tacoma, Washington. All three facilities are completely paved and subject to extremely heavy operational loads to accommodate loading, unloading, storage, and transfer of shipping containers to and from ship, rail, and trucks. Stormwater discharges from all three facilities are covered under the Washington State Department of Ecology Industrial Stormwater General Permit and each facility was required to install stormwater runoff treatment by the end of 2014, primarily due to zinc concentrations exceeding permit-defined pollutant benchmarks. Three different proprietary gravity-based treatment solutions were designed to meet each location’s unique stormwater characteristics and operational needs while meeting Washington’s stringent industrial stormwater treatment performance requirements.

The construction of the wharf at the Paulsboro Marine Terminal, in Paulsboro, NJ, began in the winter of 2014. There have been many obstacles to overcome before the first pile could be driven into the Delaware River. This paper discusses the planning, design, and construction of the wharf. The cast-in-place concrete deck is supported by precast concrete planks and cast-in-place concrete caps that are built atop precast concrete piles. Full build out of the wharf will include three deep water ship berths and a barge berth. The live load capacity of the deck is 1,500 pounds per square foot with specific heavy lift areas capable of supporting higher loads. A freight rail and gantry crane are also planned to be located on the wharf. A separate rail access trestle and a combination sheet pile wall was required to protect environmentally sensitive areas around the project site. The South Jersey Port Corporation (SJPC) – an agency of the State of New Jersey - in conjunction with the Gloucester County Improvement Authority (GCIA) and the Borough of Paulsboro is in the process of redeveloping the former British Petroleum (BP) Oil Terminal and the adjacent former Essex Industrial Chemicals, Inc. (Essex) properties into a new, deep-water marine terminal with associated processing, distribution, assembly and intermodal operations that will be called the Paulsboro Marine Terminal. Upon completion, the Terminal will cover 200 acres of land and include a deep-water wharf on the waterside of the property. The landside improvements include a new bridge and roadways providing direct interstate access, rail and utility infrastructure along with other associated civil improvements to control site drainage. Full build out of the wharf will include three deep water ship berths along the Delaware River and one barge berth along the upriver side of the wharf, which turns to run parallel the adjacent Mantua Creek. The total length of new waterside berth space will be over 2,500 feet. Supported on over 2,300 precast concrete piles the wharf was designed to carry a uniform live load of 1,500 pounds per square foot and load combinations from a variety of cranes and other cargo handling equipment. A special design was incorporated for two heavy loading areas extending the length of the wharf to account for the propping loads of a 200-ton mobile harbor crane. The design also accounted for the future inclusion of a gantry crane with a gage between the rails of 100 feet. A train rail track is also included on the wharf to allow direct loading of project cargo to rail. The train rail track was designed to carry a live loading equivalent to the Cooper E-100. Due to permitting requirements, it was necessary to construct the wharf as a pile supported deck over open water approximately 150 feet from the original shoreline. Therefore, standalone trestles are required to provide rail and vehicle access to the wharf. The rail trestle carries a curved portion of the rail and is supported on independent pile bents connected together using precast concrete bulb-tee beams. The wharf is supported on twenty-four (24) inch square prestressed concrete pilings that rely on both end bearing and skin friction to resist a maximum ultimate load of 1,800 kips. Pile bents were spaced at approximately fifteen (15) feet and support precast deck planks with a cast-in-place topping slab. The wharf was designed to handle 68,000 DWT vessels with a draft of forty-five (45) feet, which will be the maximum draft in the Delaware River once the deepening is completed in 2017. Bollards consisted of 200 ton double-bit bollards spaced at approximately sixty feet. Rubber cone fenders with prefabricated steel fender panels and UHMW facing spaced at approximately thirty feet were designed to protect the wharf during berthing.

Corrosion of metal, along with concrete and timber deterioration are common occurrences for aids to navigation (ATON) structures. These mechanisms of failure occur at various rates and are dependent upon the environment in which the structures reside. Fiberglass reinforced polymer (FRP) has a superior ability to withstand the harsh marine environments across the U.S. when compared against conventionally used timber, steel, and concrete materials. It is highly resilient to traditional modes of degradation such as biodeterioration (fungal decay, marine borers, microbiologically induced corrosion), freeze/thaw, and corrosion. The use of FRP for ATON yields large amounts of energy absorption if an aid gets hit by a vessel, reducing the probability of a structural failure. Disposal and recycling FRP and UV resistance are currently being researched in depth to find cost effective solutions that will keep FRP out of landfills and prolong their life, respectively.

Field observations and numerical modeling of infragravity (IG) waves were conducted in support of a major expansion of the Port of Haifa. Field measurements show that the overall energy level of IG waves is similar between stations deployed outside and inside the port, while spectra of IG waves show a clear peak of ~0.01 Hz at the inside-port stations and IG spectra at the outside-port stations are very broad-banded without a predominant peak frequency. A long wave model was developed using a novel approach, by employing a customized filter layer in the surf zone to mimic the short-wave breaking and run-up processes, to reduce the resolution requirement and thus the computational burden by an order of magnitude. The model shows good agreement with measured long-wave height and also reproduces the measured long-wave spectra reasonably well. The model is then used to assess the impact of port expansion layout upon IG wave conditions in the existing port and also to determine the IG waves at the new berths.

At Piers D, E, and F at the Port of Long Beach (POLB), a major redevelopment project was initiated in spring 2011. The project, known as the Middle Harbor Redevelopment, includes demolition of existing wharf facilities, dredge and fill activities, ground improvements, placement of rock dike and construction of wharf structure. To date, approximately 2,800 feet of container wharf has been constructed. When complete, the terminal will include over 4,000 linear feet of newly constructed container wharf at Pier E. This paper is a continuation of a Ports 2013 paper that focused on the structural challenges overcome by the design team during wharf construction. This paper focuses on a pile failure challenge that was not previously presented. During construction of the Stage 2 wharf, an unprecedented and unreasonably high rate of pile failure was observed during pile driving. This pile failure phenomenon led the design team to develop a unique testing and mitigation strategy to permit construction to progress while maintaining the structural integrity, seismic performance and service life of the wharf.

In recent years there have been many publications on the advances in geotechnical modelling software and associated techniques, capable of performing high level analyses, however the fundamentals of formulating a comprehensive ground model are still very much contingent upon the information gathered during the data collection campaign. Traditional methods of geotechnical data collection involve invasive methods such as boreholes and test pits, these approaches require the mobilisation of ground engaging equipment, this process can require significant logistical arrangements in terms of access and clearing. Owing to the current economic climate and general uncertainty in commodity prices, a number of clients in the mining sector are therefore having to either defer or compromise the extent of such geotechnical investigations to minimise upfront expenditure to ensure that other aspects of the project development can be adequately funded. This paper describes an overview of the use of non-invasive geophysical techniques to capture detailed geotechnical information to assess ground conditions. The focus is on the application of the multi-channel analysis of surface waves (MASW) technique to a prospective port facility run by Cominco Resources Ltd. (Cominco) in Congo Brazzaville. The remoteness of the site posed a number of logistical constraints which would have rendered boreholes drilling infeasible. The case study successfully demonstrated how the overall process was implemented and the time and cost savings that were achieved by optimising the port site geotechnical investigation campaign by significantly reducing the requirement for invasive investigations.

In consultation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the Dredged Material Management Program (DMMP), the Port of Tacoma (the port) is removing approximately 37,463 cubic meters (m³; 49,000 cubic yards [CY]) of tributyltin-(TBT-) contaminated sediments as a superfund time-critical removal action underneath and at the face of Pier 4. Following completion of the cleanup, referred to as the “Phase 1 Removal Action,” the port plans to reconfigure and reconstruct Pier 4 to be in alignment with Pier 3 located on the Blair Waterway. The port initially entered into an agreed order on consent (AOC) with USEPA in June 2014 and conducted removal site evaluation characterization in July 2014. Project construction began in Spring 2015 and is scheduled to be completed in January 2016. The port’s project delivery team, and their environmental and engineering design consultants, worked collaboratively with USEPA to get to bid in less than 1 year and complete construction within 2 years of the USEPA removal site evaluation characterization event. This was possible due to integrated agency, port, and environmental and engineering design team involvement relative to several key technical items.

The paper presents the detailed seismic analyses conducted for a high waterfront bulkhead proposed for the Phase 1 Expansion of Puerto Cabello Port in Venezuela. The project site is located in a seismic area, and a potentially liquefiable soil layer is present at a deep depth behind the bulkhead. To overcome the limitations of the Mononobe-Okabe equation, pseudo-static seismic analysis was conducted using the generalized limit equilibrium method. In addition, more advanced numerical time history analysis was performed. The details of the two analyses are provided in the paper.

The Alaska department of transportation intends to reconstruct Kodiak Pier 1. The existing pier is a timber dock built in 1965, used for ferry service, bulk fuel, and general cargo operations. The goal is to provide a new, larger dock to increase the deck area to better accommodate the ferry berthing and vehicle loading. This paper examines the design and permitting of a replacement dock including the application of modern displacement-based seismic design standards and environmental challenges at this unique site. Implementation of these design standards is discussed, as well as the real-life challenges, limitations, and risks that remain even after the new design. While the basic design criteria were met, challenges include accommodating large displacements at the beam seats at the abutment and the potential for seismic induced soil failure in the uplands impinging on the dock. Other challenges include regulatory environmental issues related to protection of Stellar sea lions.

Puerto Central (PCE) was awarded in 2011 a new concession at Puerto San Antonio, the main port of Chile. In 2013 they started a major renovation project as part of the concession agreement, the largest port infrastructure investment under construction in the country. The new terminal will be capable of receiving 366 m LOA post Panamax vessels and move 1.2M TEU per year. It will also transfer sulfuric acid, clinker, ro-ro, and bulk cargo. The main structures on the project are a 700 m long vertical pile wharf and a double sheetpile wall breakwater. The wharf considers a precast concrete system that works as formwork and shapes beams and slabs, allowing faster and simpler construction than traditional piling wharves. The breakwater is 50 m long and 15 m wide, it is exposed to large wave action and strong seismic loads. There are not many documented examples of structures like this, making it ideal for a case study. A description of the most relevant design and construction challenges for these structures is presented.

ASCE/COPRI 61-14 “Seismic Design of Piers and Wharves” (ASCE 61-14) was developed specifically for piers and wharves not occupied by the public, as these and other similar transportation related structures such as bridges are specifically excluded in ASCE 7-10. The seismic behavior of piers and wharves is similar to bridges and many of the seismic provisions in ASCE 61-14 have their roots in bridge design. One of the goals of the ASCE 61-14 committee was to develop design and detailing provisions for the most commonly used pile-to-deck connections based on available research. However, as the document evolved, it became apparent that much of the recent research and testing was performed on prestressed concrete pile dowelled connections while only limited testing has been performed on other types of piles and connections, and that testing was dated and not always appropriate for application to the displacement-based design approach used in ASCE 61-14. As a result, the analysis and detailing and provisions in the document were not as comprehensive as originally envisioned, and improvements are needed for the next edition, ASCE 61-19. As ASCE 61-14 was being finalized, a significant amount of research related to bridge columns and connections funded by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), and American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) was published that appears to be useful for piers and wharves. This paper will summarize the findings of some of the recent bridge research and suggest revisions to ASCE 61-19 related to analysis and detailing of pile-to-deck connections and in ground hinges.

A majority of the active waterfront structures used by the U.S. Navy were constructed more than 50 years ago. In many of these structures, concrete damage due to corrosion of reinforcing steel has resulted in significant costs for maintenance and repairs. The Naval Facilities Command (NAVFAC) Engineering and Expeditionary Warfare Center (EXWC) conducted a multi-year research project funded in part by the Office of Secretary of Defense (OSD) Corrosion Protection and Control (CPC) program with a goal of developing a prototype fully prestressed concrete pier design with the same features as the recently constructed Pier 12 at Naval Base San Diego that would minimize concrete cracking to produce more durable Navy piers resulting in a significant reduction in maintenance and replacement costs for the Navy waterfront inventory. Pier 12, primarily used to berth aircraft carriers, consists of a 2-foot-thick (0.6-meter) reinforced concrete flat slab deck supported on 2-foot (0.6-meter) prestressed concrete piles spaced at about 20 feet (6 meters) on center each way.

The province of British Columbia (BC), situated on the Pacific coast of Canada, has considerable natural gas reserves and a variety of competitive advantages as a liquefied natural gas (LNG) supplier. This has led to significant investment by LNG proponents, to investigate the feasibility of marine terminals to provide process and export facilities. There are regulatory and technical challenges to be addressed to ensure appropriate design criteria are adopted for the new wave of planned LNG facilities. In this work, we investigate the implications of changing guidelines and standards on water level and tsunami design criteria for LNG terminals in BC. We present a framework to evaluate design water levels and tsunami hazard, considering: best practice, probabilistic methods, advances in scientific computing, technical challenges, and regional physical processes.

Breakwaters form the barrier between destructive sea forces and infrastructure which would be severely damaged by those forces. When not being used for this purpose, larger breakwaters can be visually. For a new mega-yacht marina which will house luxury villas, vessels, and commercial spaces, a marriage between functionality and aesthetics must be met. This paper outlines the process followed to physically test breakwater designs which were heavily influenced by quarry limitations, safety thresholds, sightlines, and an extreme wave environment. With a vertical restriction, multiple cross sections looking at Tetrapods and Accropode IIs concrete armor units were tested and analyzed. In line with supporting literature, the double layer Tetrapod armor reduced wave run up and overtopping compared with the single layer Accropode II system. To obtain the same overtopping characteristics, the Accropode II crest elevation would need to be higher, leading to more of a visual impediment. Therefore, while cost implications may have led to another choice, Tetrapods were selected as the preferred armor unit and cross section.

A major pier realignment at the Port of Tacoma was designed to the recently published ASCE 61-14 standard for seismic design of piers and wharves. Standard requirements led the design team to choose a performance-based seismic design approach. Nonlinear deformation modeling was used to analyze dynamic soil-structure interaction (SSI) to quantify the demands on the piles and the wharf structure from seismically induced soil/slope movements. Because of the poor soil conditions at the site and the relatively high seismic hazard of the Pacific Northwest, the design considered coupling of soil liquefaction and ground shaking. The impacts of modeling liquefaction are discussed in terms of the amount of slope deformation and the ground improvement required to sufficiently stabilize the slope. A dynamic time-history analysis model was developed using the finite element method (FEM) software PLAXIS to reasonably capture the soil-structure interaction. As specified in ASCE 61-14, pile performance was evaluated under three seismic hazard levels. Demands on the piles were tracked throughout ground shaking to determine the maximum demands from simultaneous inertial and kinematic loading. This paper describes the geotechnical and seismic details of the SSI model, including: Subsurface explorations and lab tests required to develop soil parameters for dynamic analysis. Assessment of three seismic hazard levels, and selection and scaling of ground motions for each hazard level. Modeling parameters such as boundary conditions, FEM mesh, and dynamic time step. Development and calibration of soil constitutive models, including the UBCSAND liquefaction model. Modeling of structural elements and connections in PLAXIS. Ground improvement used to mitigate liquefaction and stabilize the slope.

The new Elliott Bay Seawall will replace an existing 75 year old seismically vulnerable structure that stretches along downtown Seattle’s waterfront. A gravity wall concept consisting of a matrix of interlocked jet grout soil cement columns was selected to replace the aging sheet pile and timber platform structure. This paper presents seismic analysis of the new gravity wall system which included the development of earthquake ground motions using the conditional mean spectrum (CMS) rather than the more conventional uniform hazard spectrum (UHS). For locations similar to Seattle, Washington, USA, where the seismic hazard is governed by crustal and subduction zone events which have distinctly different spectral shapes and durations, applying ground motions compatible with the UHS results in a significantly conservative soil improvement design versus applying ground motions compatible with the CMS. A comparative assessment of the design using UHS based motions and CMS based motions is presented.

The Pier 3 upgrade project at the Port of Tacoma was completed in anticipation of super-post-Panamax size container ships. The primary goals of the project were to maintain the existing 64-foot-gauge crane rail and to accommodate a new 100-foot-gauge crane rail for new higher capacity container cranes. The upgrade includes adding piles to the outboard crane rail and upgrading the existing wharf to support both existing container cranes and new, larger container cranes. The new crane rail is supported on a combination of the original concrete piles installed in the 1980s and new concrete piles installed as part of this upgrade project. The project geotechnical engineers evaluated the as-installed resistances of existing piles using data from the initial construction. By evaluating each existing pile individually, the design team justified increasing the allowable axial resistance of select individual existing piles. This limited the number of new piles required for the upgrade and reduced the over-all project cost.

Cline’s Point Marina, located in Port Aransas, TX, has been experiencing detrimental wave conditions near the marina’s entrance and within the marina itself during the passage of deep-draft ship traffic. The wave activity is primarily generated outside the breakwater-protected marina entrance by pressure field effects from large, laden outbound vessels in Corpus Christi Ship Channel (CCSC). Deep-draft vessel-induced surge analysis was performed to evaluate water level fluctuations and surge-induced current velocities inside the marina generated by passing vessels using the vessel hydrodynamics longwave unsteady (VH-LU) modeling system. It was observed from the modeling of existing structural conditions that the pressure field effects change significantly at higher passing speeds (e.g., 10 knots). At higher speeds, along with the long-period (150–250 s) surge wave component, additional short-period (high-frequency, 10–20 s) wave components are observed in the water level time series, that manifest themselves as breaking waves as observed in site photos. Various marina entrance breakwater improvement alternatives were developed and analyzed for reducing the penetration of both the long-period water level oscillations and shorter-period breaking waves into the marina. The VH-LU system was found to accurately simulate both the long-period water level fluctuations and the breaking (bore) waves in the marina. Analysis of water level time histories throughout the marina using fast Fourier transform routines was performed to quantify the long and short-period ship wave energy with maps of each produced to compare performance of alternatives. It was determined that restoration of the breakwater or other structural modification of the marina entrance along with selective deepening within the marina will help in reducing the penetration of these waves into the marina or the impacts of these waves after they enter the marina.

This paper presents a geotechnical design case history for rehabilitation and deepening of Terminal 5 at the Port of Seattle. Terminal 5 features a berth with an existing toe wall from a previous deepening effort. Because liquefaction may induce instability at Terminal 5, and for economic practicality, the Port of Seattle has a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the City of Seattle Department of Planning and Development allowing certain limited improvements at piers and wharves not accessible to the public provided that seismic performance is maintained or improved. To satisfy the conditions of the MoU, we used standard of practice limit equilibrium approaches to develop a slope stabilization design for the terminal that includes a deep and large king-pile HZ beam wall system with timber pinch piles. We created time-history dynamic finite element models to compare the current and proposed conditions, verify the limit equilibrium methods, and check deformations. We explored the impact of liquefaction timing on design methods and assumptions. The standard of practice when analyzing slope stability under pseudostatic loading in the Puget Sound region is to assume liquefaction occurs after strong shaking. We investigated the validity of this assumption using the UBCSAND soil constitutive model. The model was calibrated to standard of practice empirical triggering methods and site-specific dynamic laboratory testing. Both liquefaction triggering approaches suggest at least a partial coupling of liquefaction and dynamic shaking should be considered in slope stability analyses.

LNG (liquefied natural gas) is expected to become a competitive alternative for conventional fossil fuels for seagoing vessels, in particular for vessels sailing in emission control areas, like the North Sea and Baltic where strict environmental regulations regarding sulphur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are applied, since LNG is the cleanest fossil fuel with the smallest carbon foot print. Also, for barges LNG could be an interesting alternative, since the emission regulations for barges are even stricter than for seagoing vessels. Hence there is also a need for LNG facilities capable of distributing relatively small quantities of LNG. For that reason Gate terminal together with the Port of Rotterdam Authority decided to construct a small scale LNG loading facility, adjacent to the existing gate LNG import terminal. LNG carriers are treated as “regular ships” carrying dangerous cargo in the Port of Rotterdam and the paper briefly describes the Rotterdam standards regarding LNG transport. For this project a new port basin is created (the Yukonhaven) with a new quay wall. The quay wall can be used by one seagoing LNG tanker up to 180 m and smaller vessels as short as a barge of 50 m of length. According to the SIGTTO (the Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators) guidelines a dedicated LNG basin is developed instead of a jetty parallel to the channel with ongoing ship traffic. The basin lay-out has been studied using a full mission bridge simulator with the involvement of local pilots and tug masters. In addition, state-of-the-art mooring simulations were performed which included the effect of passing vessels in the channel. The new quay wall is the first of a new standard design for Rotterdam quay walls, but with some specific LNG adaptations. The combination of seagoing vessels and inland vessels on the same berth causes challenges, especially the demand by SIGTTO for energy absorbing fenders and the European ADN safety demands for escape routes for the inland barges (see references). ADN requires small stepping distances from barges to shore. For this project the PIANC (Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses) “Guideline for the Design of Fenders Systems: 2002” is not longer followed on mooring angles and velocities, but results from a large international PIANC organized (MarCom Working Group 145) monitoring campaign are used to design smaller fenders meeting all requirements. In addition, finite element (FEM) calculations were performed to verify the hull strength of the moored vessels and to be able to neglect the allowable hull pressure stated in the PIANC 2002.

The Vashon timber trestle rehabilitation project includes seismic retrofit and partial replacement of the existing timber trestle at Washington State Ferries Vashon island ferry terminal. The retrofitted portion of the trestle will be improved seismically for the 1,000-yr AASHTO event and will include the use of exterior steel batter pile frames and diaphragm strengthening through the use of timber and structural steel. The replacement trestle will be composed of a concrete superstructure with a steel plumb-pile substructure. The project was designed primarily using AASHTO, with the Washington State Ferries terminal design manual used as a supplement. Performance-based design methodologies were utilized with target performance objectives of fully operational for the 100 year seismic event and collapse prevention/life safety for the 1,000 year seismic event. This paper provides an overview of the project and discusses key design components.

Performance-based seismic design provisions for pile-supported piers and wharves highlight the need to evaluate the combined effects of inertial loading, largely associated with the dynamic response of the structure, and kinematic loading resulting from permanent, seismically-induced deformation of the foundation soils. Inertial and kinematic loads on piles are routinely evaluated in an uncoupled manner with the combined load estimated by summation of the peak loads, or a fraction of the peak loads, resulting from the two, independent solutions. This approach requires considerable judgment as both modes of seismic loading involve highly nonlinear soil-foundation-structure interaction (SFSI) therefore superposition of the independent solutions is not strictly appropriate. The evaluation of seismic performance is further complicated when considering the phasing of these non-synchronous load situations. This paper focuses on the results of an investigation of the seismic performance of pile-supported wharves to long-duration ground motions. Dynamic SFSI was evaluated using a 2-D nonlinear geomechanical model that was first calibrated using data from field case histories, physical modeling, and pile load test data prior to application for a terminal wharf at the Port of Los Angeles. The modeling supplements field case histories and physical modeling results, which highlight the need to consider the time- and location-dependent nature of the inertial and kinematic loads on piles, the pattern of accumulated cyclic shear strain in the foundation soils, and soil-pile interaction in rockfill dikes and wave armor layers. Primary geotechnical considerations are summarized with recommendations for practical analysis of pile performance.

Seepage analysis is an important design aspect of the floodwall in South Louisiana for assessing its hydraulic stability. Estimating subsurface flow through the floodwall requires a thorough understanding of pore pressure characteristics in foundation soils under hurricane storm surge condition. During a surge period, the seepage flow is far from the steady-state due to the low permeability of the local soft soil foundation and is influenced by the surge-induced water surcharge load on the flood side of the floodwall. The active pore pressures on the floodwall under surge conditions result from both the transient flow and excess pore pressure resulting from soil volume changes induced by the water surcharge and structural deformation. Prediction of such subsurface flow is beyond the capability of conventional seepage analyses. This paper presents a finite element seepage analysis to investigate active pore pressures on the floodwall with the consideration of soil-structure interaction effects. The results of the finite element seepage analysis are used to evaluate the gap formation and the seepage cut-off of the floodwall based on seepage design criteria.

Instrumentation of a marine terminal during close-in underwater blasting included in-rock and wharf-mounted geophones and water pressure sensors adjacent to piles. Limits placed on vibrations and pile cap shear strains were 25 in/s (635 mm/s) and 467 μ-strains (safety factor of 4). Pile cap and wharf deck strains were calculated from time-correlated displacement measurements during 42 blasts up to 9 ft (2.7 m) from the wharf. The highest ground velocity and acceleration adjacent to piles were 46 in/s (1,068 mm/s) and 95 g’s while the highest pile cap strain was 435 μ-strains. Peak frequencies averaged 200 Hz (0.005 s period). Peak concrete deck bending and tensile strains were 15.5 and 9.7 μ-strains, respectively. The wharf sustained no damage at these strains. Structure response spectra were computed for the largest expected earthquake and compared with a typical blast demonstrating that structure displacements and strains at the wharf natural period are lower for blasting.

The third comprehensive condition assessment of the San Pedro Breakwater was performed between July 2009 and August 2012 to provide the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) with an assessment of its functionality, and the basis for the planning of future repairs, maintenance and improvements. The assessment indicated that in its current condition, the San Pedro Breakwater appears to be providing the required functionality of wave protection to the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach. However, uncertainty about its functionality still remains if damaged by a combination of high waves and water levels. Settlement has resulted in a relatively low freeboard which makes the breakwater vulnerable to damage by wave overtopping in combined high wave and water level conditions, in particular during El Niño years. The likelihood of damage due to high waves and water levels is considerably greater than what might occur as a result of an earthquake. The risk of breakwater failure is significantly increased by a factor of 2.3 when sea level rise due to climate change by 2060 is considered. In the event of a moderate to large earthquake at the Palos Verdes Fault, liquefaction of the foundation at the east end of the breakwater would occur which could lead to significant deformations and failure of the breakwater in that area.

The Government of Iraq intends to improve efficiency of gas production through construction of facilities which will capture, treat and monetize associated gas currently being flared from southern fields. To limit in-country construction risk, it was decided that new facilities would be constructed using a modular construction philosophy, with a view that modules would be imported from fabrication facilities located overseas. For this project, a new module offloading facility (MOF) in Iraq was considered to be unviable and hence, evaluation and assessment of existing marine facilities to handle the proposed modules, was critical for overall project success. After a scoping study, an existing facility located south of Basrah was identified as the site with greatest potential to function as a MOF. This paper discusses the methodology used to assess the structural capacity of the existing marine facility, using a combination of reference information supported by strategic desktop and field surveys.

While both ASCE 7 and ASCE 61 require that kinematic (soil movement) loads be considered, they do not provide detailed guidance on the method(s) by which these loads on the structural system can be evaluated. This study discusses the modes of failure observed in real world kinematic movements, the analytical techniques used to evaluate pile-supported structures based on input soil movements, and appropriate performance limits for operational, life safety, spill prevention, and collapse prevention. The combination of kinematic and inertial loads, including simultaneous loading as well as post-kinematic inertial response is addressed. Acceptability of in-ground soil hinging and shearing is discussed in regards to acceptable performance levels. Significant parameters in the evaluation of kinematic loads are also addressed and recommendations are made on appropriate techniques for evaluation of kinematic loading.

ASCE/COPRI 61-14 Seismic Design of Piers and Wharves (ASCE 61), published in 2014, offers a uniform methodology for multi-level performance-based seismic design that relies heavily upon the substitute structure methodology. Prior to this document, marine structural engineers have drawn from a collection of reference documents when performing seismic design. The publication of this document coincided with the design of the Pier 4 Reconfiguration Project at the Port of Tacoma and was adopted as the criteria document for seismic design. The project is a pilot project for the Port of Tacoma for use of this standard. A specific challenge that was present in the design was the extreme stiffness irregularity along the length of the wharf. The southern portion of the wharf is designed as a typical wharf structure, with shorter exposed pile lengths inboard, and longer pile lengths outboard. Due to the existing slope configuration, the northern portion of the wharf structure is located in an area where all of the piles have an exposed length above the mudline of approximately 68 feet. This configuration creates slender piles at the northern end of the wharf. To control deflections during vessel mooring/ berthing, the northern portion of wharf utilizes batter piles in the transverse direction. To provide better seismic response, lead rubber bearings (LRBs) have been incorporated into the design of the portion of the structure utilizing batter piles to reduce response differentials along the length of the wharf. A comparative nonlinear, direct integration, time-history analysis was completed in select transverse locations to evaluate crane-wharf interaction and to develop displacement amplification factors for use in a nonlinear, direct integration, time-history analysis of a simplified spine model for the entire pier. This paper discusses how ASCE 61-14 was used in the design and how the methodology was adapted for use in this complex structure.

This paper addresses key considerations for the design of the expansion of the Port of Haifa, Israel container terminal in an area of moderately high seismicity for the development of several breakwaters/revetments and quays. Design-level ground motions were associated with a M 7.0 earthquake. The proposed port development is also exposed to waves from the Mediterranean Sea. The soil conditions posed several challenges for both static and seismic deformation potential. Both the reclaimed sand and some of the underlying dune sand were determined to be potentially liquefiable. In addition, a layer of soft clay resulted in the potential for excessive settlements and/or low bearing capacity for gravity-based structures. Furthermore, there was a shortage of available sand for reclamation in the dredging areas within the Port, requiring the sourcing of significant reclamation fill from an offshore borrow pit which contained sand with a relatively high fines content. Finally, the proposed terminal is located in environmentally sensitive Haifa Bay, resulting in strict limitations on dredging operations to protect marine life. In order to address these challenges and optimize the design, both static and seismic analyses, using a displacement limit approach, were carried out for breakwater, revetment and quay structures, and these, along with coastal and construction considerations, were used to: (1) select the most cost effective structure types, and subsequently, and (2) optimize their configurations. Analyses considered the quality of the reclamation fill, compaction using vibrocompaction and/or stone columns, and environmental concerns related to dredging and reclamation.

The timber shipping industry has faced a great number of challenges over the last few decades including new environmental regulations, a slumping economy, and aging port facilities. For many terminal operators and owners, the difference between thriving and failing is innovation. Ocean terminals is a privately held company that has demonstrated such innovation by taking a unique approach to replacing its aging infrastructure. Ocean terminals owns a timber export and import facility located on Coos Bay in North Bend, Oregon. The facility’s aging timber pier was nearing the end of its service life, however halting operations for an extended period of time to replace it was not viable. To keep the terminal operating, a new bulkhead was built around the existing timber pier structure in phases between ship loading operations. The new 59-foot (17.98 meter) tall tied-back bulkhead wall was built using a unique combination of H piles, cold formed sheet piles, and large diameter high strength tie rods. By staying innovative, ocean terminals was able to take on the challenge of replacing an aging facility while their terminal remained in business to serve the local economy and community of North Bend.

Until recently, few methods existed in the literature for the application of wave loading on horizontal superstructures located in coastal regions. In fact, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Coastal Engineering Manual, or CEM (the industry standard for coastal construction), contains no methodologies for calculating loads on horizontal superstructures. Although significant effort has been devoted to the development of predictive equations for wave loads on vertical structures such as piles and seawalls, predictive equations for horizontal superstructures have been limited to offshore platforms in ocean wave conditions. Wave conditions in coastal waters can vary significantly from those in the ocean. Wave periods, and therefore wave lengths, in coastal waters are much shorter. Correspondingly, the ratio of the width of coastal superstructures to the wave length is much greater than those ratios encountered in the offshore environment. Thus, wave-induced water particle velocities and accelerations vary significantly over the width of the structure as compared with offshore structures. This results in corresponding variations in wave forces on the structure. Previous researchers presented a mathematical model applicable to structures in coastal environments. This paper reviews the development of that methodology and presents a case study as well as comparisons with other recently developed methodologies.

A 1960s era California marine oil terminal was determined to be a possible collapse hazard in a major earthquake. Rather than replace the structures with an estimated construction cost of over $100M (plus millions more in operational downtime), a unique retrofit design was developed at a fraction of the cost to improve the seismic performance of the structure. Additionally, with creative scheduling and flexibility, the terminal was able to remain operational, at or near full capacity, for the duration of construction. The final retrofit design includes the installation of new seismic dolphins around the perimeter of the existing loading platform structure to limit global displacement demands on the existing supporting piles. The seismic performance of existing piles and deck beams are also improved with the use of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) applications. The paper will discuss alternatives considered by the owner, the reasoning for the final selection, and discusses unique construction aspects and lessons learned during installation of this work. Construction for this project is occurring over two complete phases, with one phase nearly complete as of February 2016.

The Makah Tribe has fished in and around Neah Bay, Washington, for over 4,000 years. In early 2013, the Tribe recognized that deterioration of their aging timber fishing dock posed a large threat to the economy of this remote community at the northwestern-most point of the state and continental United States and selected a design team to replace the facility using the traditional design/bid/build method of procurement. In August 2013 during conceptual design, a portion of the decking collapsed, and the dock was closed because of the resulting unsafe conditions. As a result of a concentrated team effort by the Makah Tribe and their consultant team, all federal, state, and local permits for the work were obtained within 88 days of application submittal, and in-water construction began in late December 2013, four months after the collapse. By pre-ordering the piles and using a precast concrete deck system to minimize cast-in-place concrete, the dock structure was completed in three months and the facility, consisting of an access trestle, dock, fish-buying station, storage warehouse, and ice production plant, was operational by October 2014. This paper will provide an overview of the project and describe the challenges and solutions developed by the team that allowed the project to be completed only 10 months after the collapse.

Lyttelton Port of Christchurch (LPC) suffered four major earthquakes between September 2010 and December 2011 which severely damaged the port’s wharf structures. Following these events, an assessment was completed into the performance requirements required for the replacement structures to maintain operational continuity throughout multiple seismic events. This paper discusses the assessment, analysis, design and performance characteristics of two designs that utilise tie rods and anchor piles to provide a greater level of seismic resilience. One design is a hybrid design where the tie rods from a 23 m wide wharf are linked to cement deep soil mixed (CDSM) columns. The second design comprises a typical 34 m wide marginal wharf cross section, with tie rods linked to tubular steel anchor piles 30 m behind the wharf. The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of the late Emeritus Professor Nigel Priestley, who provided invaluable advice as peer reviewer from concept through to detailed design.

This paper outlines the inspection process and the current methodologies for testing mooring hardware including the benefits of performing a berthing analysis prior to designing a load testing program. The paper then looks at three different case studies where the authors conducted load testing for the United States Navy on five different types of bollards. Each example presents a different type of bollard and foundation, and the unique challenges for testing that bollard. It includes a discussion on how the various challenges were overcome, and discusses the lessons learnt and how the authors would have done things differently. This paper concludes with a summary of where the industry stands currently with respect to mooring fitting load testing and a look forward to possible improvements in the way testing is conducted and the adoption of standard testing procedures.

The Seattle Multi-Modal Ferry Terminal at Colman Dock serves 9 million passengers a year, is being replaced to improve seismic reliability, accessibility, and remove 7,400 tons (6,710,000 kilograms) of creosote-treated piles. The project consists of replacing 150,000 square feet (139,000 square meters) of timber trestle with a steel pile-supported concrete trestle, five buildings, and one pedestrian loading structure. The trestle will be the building foundations and vehicle bridge between Alaskan Way and the ferries. This paper addresses several seismic challenges. Because the buildings are founded on the trestle, the structure must efficiently meet the seismic requirements of the Seattle Building Code and the Washington State Department of Transportation Ferries Division Terminal Design Manual. Combining the buildings and trestle, uniquely impacts the seismic response by lengthening the building periods. Structure detailing was developed to accommodate drift requirements of the buildings, plumb pile trestle, battered pile trestle, and sea wall.

While bulkheads are used in many seismically active areas in the United States and elsewhere, detailed seismic design guidelines for bulkheads are not available to practitioners. Available documents provide only limited guidelines for seismic design of bulkheads, while performance-based guidelines are practically non-existent. The ASCE COPRI Task Committee for Seismic Design of Bulkheads (Task Committee) was formed in 2014 to develop practice-oriented guidelines for force- and performance-based seismic design of bulkheads. The Task Committee is documenting recommended design procedures that incorporate recent advances in pertinent topics such as specification of seismic ground motions for earth retention systems, seismic lateral earth pressure estimation, soil structure interaction for flexible structures, and soil liquefaction/lateral spreading issues. The performance-based focus of the guidelines will address bulkhead deflection and the associated impact on appurtenant structures and waterfront components such as cranes and cargo conveyance systems. The guidelines will constitute the basis for development of bulkhead design provisions for future editions of the ASCE 61 Standards for Seismic Design of Piers and Wharves. This paper presents the status and related discussion of the guidelines being developed by the Task Committee.

Hurricanes, like Sandy (October 2012) have demonstrated that reducing the impact of coastal flooding to the maritime supply chain is an economic necessity. Guidelines to aid decision makers to reduce impacts of flooding were developed using lessons learned post Super Storm Sandy at the Port of New York and New Jersey. Preparatory practices in place during Sandy allowed for the successful restoration of water-side marine operations; however restoration of land-side operations was less effective. The principle supply chain breakdown was from cascading failures among the power, communication and transportation sectors. For the supply chain, these cascading failures delayed container terminals’ ability to re-open and connect with inland modal movements. Both waterside and landside transport alignment is needed to recover normal business processes. Guidelines, including the establishment of landside logistic teams similar to the existing waterside teams, are proposed to help facilitate the recovery of the landside supply chain. The guidelines describe possible organizational approaches and methods for restoring normal port supply chain operations through a formal collaborative process.

Ever wonder how to design an expansion of an existing container terminal that is located within a USACE flood protection zone such that it is suited for multipurpose heavy lift, RoRo, and container operations? Then look no further, the Velasco terminal, located at Port Freeport approximately 60 miles south of Houston, TX is undertaking such an expansion. The expansion includes adding 1,400 feet of new wharf; an entirely new structure for RoRo operations; while continuing to protect upland areas from hurricane storm surge by transitioning from an earthen levee system to a steel sheetpile floodwall. The wharf expansion design includes integrating new pile supported structures with existing bulkheads and enclosed marginal wharf structures. The final design is capable of servicing two 7,800 TEU vessels simultaneously, as well as supporting heavy lift crawler cranes and live load pressures of 2,500 psf.

In response to an increase in demand for heavy-lift RO/RO operations at the Port of Everett, a portion of an aging 1970s vintage concrete marginal wharf was strengthened and repaired to increase the load-carrying capacity from 550 psf live load to 1,000 psf. The improvements included adding new piles and intermediate pile caps between the existing pile caps, and strengthening the existing pile caps. The existing pile caps within the upgrade area were also repaired to correct corrosion damage caused by chloride-ion intrusion. The repairs included removal of deteriorated concrete, cleaning and replacement of the corroded reinforcing steel, and replacement of the concrete. Cast-in zinc anodes were used to provide cathodic protection. Underwater and underdeck (above water) inspections by the engineers designing the improvements quantified the severity and extent of the structural deterioration. This enabled selection of the best possible repair methods to reduce project costs and increase the structures’ service life and strength. This paper describes the investigation of alternatives, analysis and design of the upgrades and repairs, and the challenges of construction.

Dynamic time-history analyses were performed for a pile-supported marginal wharf using the two-dimensional (2D) finite difference numerical modeling program FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua, Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.). The wharf includes a soil embankment constructed to retain the dredged fill material placed behind the embankment. Due to high potential of liquefaction in the native sandy/silty soils and hydraulic dredged fill behind the embankment during the design earthquakes, ground improvements were incorporated into the design. These included deep soil mixing (DSM) and Vibro-Improvement (e.g., vibro-compaction and/or vibro-replacement). Ground improvement using wick drains and surcharge was also considered for the native soft fat clay that underlies the wharf area to accelerate the consolidation process and to increase the strength during construction. The main objective of the dynamic analysis was to evaluate the extent of ground improvements required to stabilize and limit the deformations of the embankment during the design earthquakes. Excessive embankment deformations adversely impact wharf foundation and performance, and therefore, need to be limited to an acceptable value. In the FLAC analyses, the Mohr-Coulomb soil model was combined with the hysteretic damping FLAC SIG3 function to model the non-linear behavior of the soils during earthquake shaking. This FLAC damping function was calibrated with the results of the 1D site-response analysis obtained using the program D-MOD2000 (Geomotions, LLC), so the dynamic soil parameters used in these two models are consistent for the free-field ground condition. This paper presents the approaches, assumptions, and results of the above analyses.

Turkey, Japan, Chile, and the West Coast states of the United States are well-known for experiencing strong earthquakes from time to time. When hit by seismicity of a high magnitude, coastal and inland structures in these regions are easily destroyed not only by strong motions but also by earthquake-induced liquefaction of soil under them. The risk of potential liquefaction of seawall foundations is proven to be minimized by double sheet pile walls, which confine the soil in-between. A tubular pile wall installed inside a seawall also enhances its structural integrity during an earthquake and thereafter so the seawall will maintain its functions even if it is partially damaged. These two new designs and the projects that employed them in Japan as well as an aseismic levee upgrade project in California will be studied. These projects utilized the Press-in Piling Method to drive the piles without damaging the existing seawalls or disturbing local residents due to its low noise and very low vibration nature.

The Port of Los Angeles (POLA) is upgrading berths 214-220 container wharves, which includes deepening of berths 214-216 to accommodate larger ship sizes up to 13,000 TEUs. The existing wharf was designed for a mudline elevation near the US Pierhead (USPH) line of approximately -45 ft. (-13.7 m) mean lower low water (MLLW). For the wharf upgrade, the mudline elevation is being deepened to -53 ft. (-16.2 m) MLLW near the USPH line. An underwater bulkhead system, approximately 1,500 linear ft. (457 linear m), will be used to support the deepening of mudline elevation. Among various underwater bulkhead systems considered for the wharf deepening, a continuous sheet pile underwater bulkhead was found to be the most cost-effective solution and was used in final design. This paper discusses the geotechnical investigation, site characterization, ground motion, liquefaction, lateral earth pressures, underwater bulkhead design, and construction considerations.

Hurricane Sandy made landfall on the East Coast of the United States in October of 2012 and storm surge along the Delaware shoreline severely eroded the beach for miles, including the beach adjacent to the newly-constructed Charles W. Cullen Bridge, which carries Delaware State Route 1 over the Indian River Inlet. While the storm surge did not damage the bridge, it swept away the sand dunes, leaving the northern approach vulnerable to future storms. If the approach was lost to a storm, the bridge would be unusable, resulting in a very significant and sustained impact to traffic. After the storm, the Delaware Department of Transportation (DelDOT) assembled a team of engineers and construction contractors to engage in emergency repair services. A temporary sheet pile bulkhead was selected as a solution that could be implemented quickly to reestablish protection for the northern approach. The temporary bulkhead would allow the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) the necessary time to develop plans for long-term beach replenishment.

A major project is underway at the POLA that proposes to create approximately 35 acres of land and water for a world-class marine research institute. Approximately 2,540 ft of existing wharves at Berths 57-60 will be upgraded in Phase 1. This is the oldest wharf built in San Pedro Bay and the existing wharf and the shed have been designated as “historic.” This designation requires preservation of the exterior appearance of the shed as well as a visible portion of the wharf located above water. Additionally, POLA is located in a highly seismic area and the proposed project allows public access, thereby requiring any upgrades to meet current building codes. Initial evaluations indicate significant improvements are needed to meet current seismic requirements in addition to repairs for the proposed project. This paper discusses the seismic, structural, and geotechnical aspects of the project and compares various upgrade alternatives considered for implementation.

Mallory Pier at the United States Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA) in Kings Point, New York could no longer safely fill its role in USMMA’s training mission. With portions of the original timber pier dating to the 1940’s, the Academy’s waterfront was in need of modernization. A new pier was commissioned as one of the capital improvement projects implemented by the Maritime Administration (MARAD) under United States Department of Transportation. The existing pier was replaced with a new concrete pier. In order to minimize the construction duration, the design utilized precast concrete piles, pile caps, and deck panels. The incorporation of these elements allowed the construction process to be expedited and minimized the need for formwork over water. The new pier is equipped with a timber wave fence, composite polymeric fender piles, composite floating camels, and mooring hardware to protect the pier and allow safe berthing for the Academy’s training vessels. The project upgraded the pier’s electrical system and provided electrical and mechanical hookup stations for berthed vessels.

During the magnitude (M_w) 7.7, 1993 Guam earthquake, which caused significant damages to coastal structures throughout the area, X-Ray Wharf in the island showed signs of liquefaction and lateral spreading and seismically induced settlement up to 30 cm. The existing wharf is approximately 450 m long and consists of a combination of steel sheet pile bulkheads with a single level of tie-backs and steel sheet pile bulkheads with relieving platforms. Even though the damage to the wharf was not significant during the 1993 earthquake, it was found that the existing wharf would not meet the current two-level seismic performance criteria per the latest unified facilities criteria, (UFC) 4-152-01 (DoD, 2005, 2012). Among the various concepts evaluated to upgrade the existing wharf, constructing a new wharf in front of the existing wharf was found to be the most effective solution and taken forward for final design. A new sheet pile bulkhead wall approximately 10.7 m away from the existing sheet pile bulkhead will be constructed and the space between the new and old sheet pile bulkheads will be filled with improved granular backfill. Cement deep soil mixing (CDSM) was selected as the most cost-effective ground improvement technique to improve the granular fill and weak foundation materials. Construction of the new wharf is presently under way. The paper discusses the seismic design philosophy, geotechnical field investigation, site characterization, seismic analyses, and ground improvement design in an informative manner useful to practicing engineers.

ASCE Manual No. 130 (Waterfront Facilities Inspection and Assessment) was published in 2015 and briefly highlights several specialized techniques in Appendix C. In 2013, the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) created a two-day training course to provide inspectors and managers the opportunity to learn about the latest in commercially available nondestructive tools and monitoring systems. This paper will introduce ten NDE methods in the ASCE Manual No. 130 and the USDOT training course with a clear focus on providing a concise useful resource.

The Phillips 66 Marine Terminal, located in Freeport, Texas, on the Gulf of Mexico, is a deep-water berthing facility used for importing and exporting petroleum products. Three docks are being upgraded at the site. The improvements will allow the addition of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and pentane plus (C5+) operations. To accommodate long-term port planning, two of the structures will eventually be relocated to increase the size of the Old Brazos River Channel. Originally planned for rehabilitation and expansion, the docks were redesigned midway through the process as new modularly constructed structures. In addition, two of the docks will incorporate the ability to be moved, as a whole, to a future location. The modular construction will allow the current docks to remain in service as the new dock platforms are being constructed. This will minimize the downtime of the facility during the upgrade. The modular pieces will be assembled on-site and placed with the loading arms, gangway tower, crane, control cabin, and additional piping assemblies and utilities already installed on the modular pieces. The facility, located in “Hurricane Alley,” will be subjected to significant wind and wave loads. Deflection control of the docks and product piping support structures is vital to avoid loss of product and to eliminate the use of multiple expansion joints and product piping loops. To obtain the required strength and stiffness, a combination of steel moment frames and braced frames are utilized in the design of the dock platform, pipe way and access way structures. Various aspects of the project are examined, including the steel and concrete modular platform design, modular section to steel pipe pile connection design, access way and product pipe way design, and future removal and reinstallation of two docks. Due to innovative solutions and creative engineering, the project team was able to deliver a product that meets the Client’s future needs within the restricted site layout configuration, with minimal production downtime, and provides an elegant design for the current facility.

Marine rubber fenders provide a critical role in the operations of ports. They allow several thousand tonne vessels to berth against vital infrastructure without damaging the wharf or the vessel. Use of fenders also allows the structural engineer to know the expected berthing loads which are critical to the design of the wharf. Fenders are the products which turn vessel kinetic energy into known reactions when they absorb the vessel energy. If the vessel’s kinetic energy cannot be absorbed by the fenders then where does the energy go? It generally goes into damaging either the wharf, the vessel, or both, or endangering lives and property. So how can the owner guarantee that the fenders installed at their facility are actually able to absorb the prescribed energy? The current industry practice of verifying performance of rubber fenders lies with suppliers themselves. The reason this is so readily accepted is that the suppliers are known to own equipment capable of testing such large items. The conflict of interest between the supplier and the Port is obvious, especially when considering the high cost of manufacturing some of the largest rubber parts in the world. This paper discusses a few potential ways that the purchaser of marine fenders can verify independently whether the fenders are meeting project specifications, thereby assuring safe berthing operations.

POLA berths 100-102, consisting of 2,500 foot-long (762 m) concrete container wharves, were constructed in three phases over a 10-year period. This paper discusses the seismic analysis and evaluation of post-seismic conditions for these wharf structures, which included three levels of ground motion with corresponding performance criteria, and identified vulnerabilities based on the expected structural response for a typical wharf section. Single and multiple consecutive discrete earthquake events were analyzed. No established methods exist to determine displacement demand due to consecutive discrete earthquake events, defined as an event that occurs after the first event allowing sufficient time for the structure to unload and reach a rest position. In this paper, two methods were proposed to determine these displacement demands, the algebraic addition and residual methods, were analyzed. Additionally, repair methods were proposed and analyzed for single and consecutive post-seismic events to verify/confirm the performance of the proposed repair method.

Port facilities are some of the most complex infrastructure environments, and often lacking in adequate utility record drawings. The Port of Los Angeles provides an excellent example to discuss utility issues primarily based on its historic nature. The first official documentation of the San Pedro Bay Harbor was in 1542, and the first commercial ventures started in the mid-1800s. The Port of Los Angeles has been continuously active as a trading post since then.

One of the ongoing challenges in the field of numerical sediment transport modeling is to accurately quantify sedimentation rates and patterns for cohesive sediments. The Port of San Francisco (POSF) desired to evaluate impacts of various proposed activities within the Central Basin, which is subject to sedimentation by fine sediments. One primary goal of the project was to evaluate potential increases in sedimentation following various pier removal, dredging, and park construction activities. The impacts on sedimentation rates of three proposed developments in the Central Basin were analyzed with the calibrated sediment transport model: removal of a derelict wharf (Wharf 8) that flanks the Central Basin, construction of a recreational beach (Crane Cove Park) on the western edge of the basin, and deepening of specific dredge units within the Central Basin. It was determined that although removal of Wharf 8 and the construction of Crane Cove Park resulted in minimal changes to the sedimentation rate, dredging of specific dredge units resulted in an expected increase in sedimentation rates as well as an overall shift in sedimentation patterns.

When sediment-related remediation or maintenance is required at developed waterfronts, construction is often necessary below existing overwater structures such as piers, wharves, and docks. Sediment removal and placement of materials (e.g., sand, rock, and capping materials) below existing structures present unique challenges to the permitting, design, and construction phases of a sediment management and remediation project. This paper reviews the various challenges that exist for marine work below existing structures and discusses several methods for accomplishing work in these constrained settings. Additional observations are provided for regulatory permitting considerations and unique quality assurance/quality control methods that apply to marine work below existing structures are presented. Pertinent case studies are described for illustration purposes.

The Port of Los Angeles (POLA) has a strong commitment to developing innovative strategic and sustainable operations that benefit the economy as well as the quality of life for the region and the nation it serves. Currently, POLA is upgrading several container wharves to accommodate larger ship sizes. As part of the Berths 214-220 wharf upgrade project, Berths 218-220 will be upgraded to increase the ship-to-shore crane from a 50 ft gauge to a 100 ft gauge. Berths 218-220’s existing wharf structures were constructed at different times and vary in age from 30 to 50 years old and are currently operated under a 25-yr lease that expires in 2016; however, POLA intends to extend this lease for an additional 10 yrs. Due to the wharf structure’s age, and uncertainty in future crane sizes, the upgraded wharves were seismically evaluated using spectra of a seismic hazard with a 50% probability of exceedance in 50 yrs, and a 72-yr recurrence. The upgraded tie-beam connection to the existing wharf were seismically evaluated using spectra of a reduced seismic hazard with a 50% probability of exceedance in 25 yrs, and a 36-yr recurrence. The design of the upgraded wharf at Berths 218-220 was completed in April 2015. Construction started in September 2015. This paper discusses the landside crane girder, piles, and tie-beam design, as well as the seismic evaluation, and challenges faced during design.

The Pacific coast of Colombia is currently home to one of the biggest maritime infrastructure projects under development in Latin America. Located on the Aguadulce Peninsula, facing the Port of Buenaventura, with an area of more than 35 hectares, the land reclamation project is a key part of an $800 million program to develop the Boscoal (bulk handling) and SPIA (container) terminals. The Aguadulce Peninsula is a greenfield site, located in one of the highest seismic regions in the world. The site is characterized by the presence of thick layers of very soft marine sediments overlying stiffer layers of clay and mudstone. The site experiences heavy rainfall all year long and the portions of both terminals facing the sea can be exposed to tidal variations of up to 5 meters. This paper describes the technical solutions for the land reclamation implemented in the different upland portions of the two terminals and how the technical and logistic challenges brought about by the presence of soft soils, the high seismicity of the region, the remoteness of the site and lack of good fill soils were overcome. Because of the high cost of importing good quality fill materials, optimization of available in-situ materials for reuse as part of the land reclamation was necessary. Thus, a land reclamation concept consisting of lime stabilization of suitable in-situ soft materials was implemented. A combination of sheetpile bulkheads with tie-backs and soil-filled bags retained the stabilized soil fill. In areas with shallow soft soils, the reclamation involved partial removal of soft soils, whereas in areas with very thick soft soil layers subject to heavy operational loads, unsuitable soils were improved with rigid inclusions in varying patterns. To ensure adequate bearing capacity and global stability for the reclaimed zones, an extensive geo-structural study was undertaken. The studies examined the effects of the operational and seismic loads on the stability of the different fill retaining systems and backfilled zones during and after construction. When constructed, the upland portions of the terminals will provide the needed container and bulk storage needs of the terminals.

For the seismic design of pier and wharf structures, there are multiple methodologies permitted for determining displacement demands. The current edition of MOTEMS and ASCE 61-14 permits use of an iterative substitute structure approach for nonlinear static demand analysis. The proposed 2016 revisions to MOTEMS will also permit a simplified, non-iterative coefficient method to estimate nonlinear displacement demands. This paper compares displacement demands computed from the two methods for three selected structures. The presented results indicate that the substitute structure approaches generally provide larger displacement demands compared to the coefficient method. A detailed examination of the background for these two methods indicates that the coefficient method was extensively evaluated recently in a FEMA 440 study, but the substitute structure approaches were subject to only a very limited evaluation more than 40 years ago against results from “exact” nonlinear dynamic analysis. Therefore, there is an urgent need to comprehensively evaluate the “accuracy” of the substitute structure approaches before arriving at more definitive conclusions about relative “accuracy” of these two approximate procedures.

Improvements to existing wharfs frequently involve larger design loads and hence the need to evaluate the structure’s capacity to accommodate that load. Minimizing renovation to the existing structure, especially the substructure, is ideal from both a cost and facility disruption standpoint. Therefore, maximizing the loads that can safely be supported by the existing substructure is often a goal in a renovation design. This paper presents a case study of high-strain dynamic pile testing performed on 30-year old 18 in. (457 mm) and 20-year old 24 in. (610 mm) square prestressed concrete (PSC) piles to determine the maximum allowable loads the existing piles could support, thereby reducing the number of new piles required to support the increased demands from larger ship-to-shore (STS) cranes. The case study discussion includes a description of the wharf construction, pile testing, results, wharf reconstruction, concluding with the study result’s impact to the overall project design and subsequent construction cost. Following the case study, recommendations for this method’s application to other wharf renovation projects will be provided along with a discussion on balancing the needs of an operational terminal during the in-situ testing.

Given the rapid growth of container ship sizes and the cranes that service them, what type of crane and loads should a new wharf be designed for? Recently, crane loads on wharves have exceeded wharf capacities sooner than expected. For instance, some wharves designed within the last 15–20 years are having their design capacities approached by recent cranes designed for Triple E ships. Future cranes will continue to get bigger and require larger wharf capacity. A variety of possible crane designs and their impact on crane loads on the wharf are discussed, including the following: Increasing the outreach and lift height beyond Triple E size cranes, Multiple trolleys, Triple or quad twin lift, Unconventional crane systems, Wharf strengthening is expensive from direct costs to upgrade the wharf and indirect costs from restricted wharf usage and interruptions to operations. This paper discusses historical crane load increases and possible future crane designs.

Steel sheet pile bulkheads are widely used for waterfront structures and shoreline stabilization. Due to their smooth surface and reflective nature they provide limited habitat opportunities for aquatic species. One example is Cleveland’s Cuyahoga River navigation channel. The Cuyahoga River navigation channel has been transformed from a natural system to an important passageway for maritime commerce but is now a daunting corridor for transient fish. For fish, the ability to migrate upriver to spawn as adults and downriver to return to Lake Erie as juveniles is critical to their survival. The navigation channel poses challenges due to lack of habitat, limited food sources, low water velocity, and at certain times of the year, low dissolved oxygen and high water temperatures. Much of the navigable portion of river (5 miles/8 km) is lined on both sides with steel sheet pile bulkheads. The 27 foot (8.3m) dredged channel and the vertical sheet pile bulkheads provide very limited opportunities for habitat reestablishment. Since 2006, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACOE) has been developing, testing and implementing technologies to create habitat for larval and juvenile fish while maintaining the channel for navigation. Building on lessons learned from earlier work, the objective of the Green Bulkhead Project is to understand the altered system dynamics of the river, and use the principles of biomimicry to develop a replicable and durable solution for creating functional habitat for larval fish along the aging steel bulkheads. The project team has identified desired functions (shelter and nourishment) and defined project context, which includes designing the retrofit to withstand large sediment loads, passing vessels and ice within the channel. The conceptual design stage looked to biological models for inspiration. The selected alternative is a hanging steel basket that can be attached to the inner flanges of the bulkhead sheets. The baskets can be filled with a variety of natural materials to mimic natural river bank functions. The baskets have been designed to meet the difficult conditions in the navigation channel. Prototypes of the habitat enhancement baskets were installed in the fall of 2015.

Located on the remote Aguadulce Peninsula in Buenaventura on the Pacific coast of Colombia, the Sociedad Puerto Industrial de Aguadulce (SPIA) container wharf is a T-headed pile-supported wharf comprising a 600-meter-long quay connected to a 160-meter-long access trestle and a 25-meter-long platform. The wharf is designed to support Super Post-Panamax ship-to-shore cranes and berth 12,500-TEU container vessels. The marine contractor chose to build the wharf with a top-down construction system to expedite construction. The benefits of this system were maximized by the implementation of a deck system composed primarily of precast concrete (PC) elements over high-capacity driven steel pipe piles. The deck system involved the use of an innovative PC plug providing the connection between the pipe piles and the PC deck elements. The PC plugs had to not only provide structural performance equivalent to the widely accepted cast-in-place concrete plugs, but also had to be optimized for transportation and erection. This paper describes how the different PC elements forming the wharf deck system were designed, detailed, erected, and connected. The paper also presents key results of the seismic analyses and design. The design of the deck was particularly challenging because of the need to implement seismic capacity protection principles in one of the world’s highest seismic areas. The paper also elaborates on how the top-down construction system was implemented. This system lends itself to a linear construction approach that uses previously-installed steel pipe piles as supporting elements of a platform that rapidly installs future piles and PC deck elements and then moves forward to continue with the rest of construction.

Many bridges constructed over navigable waterways in the United States during the highway construction boom of the 20th century still have their original fender systems. These were often constructed of timber and integrated with the bridge pier foundations, making them difficult to repair and replace. Furthermore, as the original systems reach the end of their service lives and require replacement, the AASHTO vessel collision specifications adopted since the original construction may require a significantly more robust fender system, preventing a replace-in-kind approach. The Virginia Department of Transportation has begun to develop and implement a fender replacement program. The design strategies for this fender replacement program are complicated by low overhead clearance under bridge decks, the need to maintain channel width, the presence of large fast-moving vessels, and the presence of underwater cables and obstructions at each site. Providing a replacement fender system that requires minimal maintenance and has a long service life is a top priority.

Despite the widespread devastation and loss of human life after a major disaster it is imperative to gather accurate data regarding infrastructure performance in a timely manner. This work may be impeded by several factors including damage to critical infrastructure needed for field team support, impassable terrain, increased risk of exposure to health hazards and, in the case of underwater investigation, poor visibility and limited access to subsurface substructure elements. This paper presents information regarding the environment likely to be encountered immediately after a coastal disaster, recommendations for the preparation and training necessary to deal with this environment and additional measures to supplement above and below water condition assessment techniques under these circumstances. This paper also addresses several important and well-documented reports of the experiences of field teams conducting post disaster inspection of coastal, marine, and transportation infrastructure. Of particular note are the Hurricane Katrina, Kobe Earthquake, and Haiti Earthquake events.

Efficiency, accuracy, detail, and capability are the fundamental factors that need to be evaluated when selecting an appropriate remote sensing technology for nearshore surveys. The land/water interface is one of the most challenging areas to acquire survey data in and it is often the site of many engineering projects that require exceptional characterization of geospatial and geological conditions. Sonar has been the principle technology for mapping the seafloor since World War I. Lidar technology has been in use for hydrographic mapping for more than thirty years, with much significant advancement made in the last decade. More recently, research has been advancing the use of satellite imagery for the derivation of bathymetric maps. There are many benefits and limitations to each of these techniques for mapping the seabed and where capabilities overlap, it is essential to understand the relative advantages and disadvantages of each. This presentation will briefly summarize the effective capabilities inherent with today’s multibeam acoustic sonar, Lidar (both topographic and bathymetric), and the current state of imagery derived bathymetry technologies, and offers a comparative discussion regarding functional trade-offs (principally between cost, accuracy and detail), as well as the synergies between using them collaboratively.

Wave storms crossing the Aegean and Cretan Seas, with significant wave heights exceeding 4m, annually reach the exposed entrance of the Venetian harbor of Chania. The frequent storms are taking a toll on the aging docks, necessitating makeshift measures to prevent scouring and protect the businesses in the perimeter of the harbor. Here, we examine the contribution of resonance to wave amplification in the harbor basin. Wave measurements collected between 2012 and 2015 define the wave climate just offshore and inside the harbor. The resonant frequencies are identified using a high resolution Boussinesq-type numerical model and are validated through the field measurements. The case study offers interesting insight into small harbor wave resonance, for which few real scale studies exist to validate numerical models.

The Elliott Bay Seawall protects Seattle’s downtown waterfront from waves and the erosive forces of Puget Sound and Elliott Bay. It serves to protect the core waterfront commercial and tourist district, the Alaskan Way arterial corridor, major regional utilities, and access to the busy Colman Dock Ferry Terminal. Originally constructed in the early 1900’s, the seawall required replacement due to its deteriorating condition and seismic vulnerability. The new seawall was designed to withstand the design earthquake and be durable enough to last a minimum of 75 years. The structure is supported on a jet grout-improved cellular soil mass to mitigate soil liquefaction effects during an earthquake. Concrete mixes and reinforcing schemes were selected to enhance durability. The design also incorporated allowances for projected sea level rise and potential tsunami waves. The new structure makes extensive use of modular precast concrete components to speed construction, provide enhanced durability, reduce project costs, and minimize impacts to adjacent properties. Precast elements used on the project include custom-designed precast face panels, precast zee-shaped superstructure segments, and light penetrating sidewalk panels. Another primary goal of the project was to enhance shallow-water aquatic habitat along the face of the wall. This was accomplished in part by creating a 15-foot cantilevered sidewalk with a light penetrating surface that serves to create improved fish habitat along the wall’s 3,700 foot length. Habitat-friendly concrete surface finishes and fill materials were also used. The project work also required development of a complex construction sequence to facilitate the construction process within a confined and congested site with active adjacent properties. his presentation will provide an overview of the Elliott Bay Seawall project with a focus on the key design and construction considerations, including earthquake resistance, durability considerations, and sustainable design. An overview of related design and construction considerations and construction sequence details will also be presented.

In current design practice, any vessel at berth during an earthquake event is ignored when designing a structure for earthquake loads. This is rationalized based on the frequency of vessel calls in combination with the infrequency of significant earthquakes and the long response periods of vessels relative to earthquake motions. The ASCE 61 Standards Committee for Seismic Design of Piers and Wharves has formed a Task Committee to investigate whether facilities with high occupancy rates in high seismic regions should consider the effects of a vessel being present as part of the wharf seismic design. As no quantitative analysis of the combined vessel-structure seismic interaction has previously been performed, this paper presents original studies currently being performed by the Task Committee as part of its investigation. This paper highlights a simplified case considering a single vessel moored at a typical wharf during a significant earthquake. The intent of this evaluation is to determine effects on the mooring system and structure.

This paper presents a risk-based structural assessment methodology used in conjunction with a life cycle cost analysis to assist Port Metro Vancouver develop a multi-year works program with funding needs for maintaining the reliability of its assets. The risk measure is based on the probability of structural failure and the monetary consequence of failure, and accounts for the deterioration of material over time. For steel, the corrosion rate was used as the measure of deterioration. For reinforced concrete, material modelling estimated the rate of degradation, the onset and the progression of rebar corrosion over time. The failure probabilities were estimated first by assuming that no repair or rehabilitation is performed. Then various scenarios of preventative risk mitigation measures were considered, and their associated costs were used in the life cycle cost analysis to develop strategies for asset management. An example of the completed projects, the merits, and the limitations of this approach are presented.

America’s Central Port, located within the metropolitan St. Louis region, recently completed its new barge terminal and bulk conveyor loading facility. Known as South Harbor, the terminal is located just south of Locks #27, the last lock on the Mississippi River. The terminal will allow access to six North American Class I railroads and four interstate highways to interact with a lock-free and ice-free, public port on the nation’s largest inland waterway. These will come together in concert to create a multi-modal gateway of both regional and national significance. The new harbor consists of a trapezoidal-shaped dredge basin located off the main navigation channel. A twin barge docking area with a conveyor to load bulk commodities onto barges, and four adjacent mooring dolphins. The new harbor also features a 65-foot-high earth-filled sheet pile wall with a deck elevation above the 100-year flood level. This will allow the South Harbor to be operable at all navigable river stages and provide uninterrupted service for exports of agricultural products from Midwestern growers and allows the potential for future container cargo throughout the year.

Berths 196-199 at the Port of Los Angeles (POLA) are utilized as an auto terminal with an extensive railyard for loading/unloading of auto racks. Due to existing conditions and structure age, rehabilitation is required. Rehabilitation consists of approximately 60 timber piles and 1,600 joists undergoing repair, in-kind replacement, or upgrade; concrete wharf repairs to replace approximately 120,230 sf of asphalt concrete; restoring load carrying capacity to 500 psf (axial pile capacity is the limiting factor); and upgrading vehicle load from small truck to standard class highway loading (HS-20). In addition, an under-wharf inspection found all utility pipes (except waterlines) under deck are no longer in use and contaminated with hazardous materials, and the potable water lines are in need of replacement. This paper discusses the challenges faced in rehabilitating a 30+ year old wharf with differing structural elements, including abatement and removal of contaminated utility pipes, while maintaining operational capacity.

The City and Borough of Juneau (CBJ) needed additional berthing space downtown for the larger cruise ships arriving to the Inside Passage of Alaska. Floating cruise ship berths were selected by the project team as the preferred alternative in order to accommodate passenger loading, unloading, and queueing operations and to provide greater security, address the large tides, and unique geotechnical challenges presented by the project site. PND worked closely with officials from the CBJ and the cruise line agencies during the planning and design phases of the project to provide input on the size, alignment, and features of the new floating berths. The final configuration of the floating cruise ship berths are parallel and offshore from the current downtown cruise ship fixed docks. The new berths included two large floating concrete pontoons. The largest pontoon measures 400 feet long and 50 feet wide. The second pontoon measures 300 feet long and 50 feet wide. The concrete pontoons are held in place by large, steel pipe pile dolphins. In addition to the concrete pontoons, other major project elements include mooring and breasting dolphins to support ship berthing operations, two orthotropic steel transfer bridges, two timber approach piers, a smaller moorage float with gangway access, electrical systems to support the facility operations, and water and waste water systems to support ship operations while in port. The project site for the downtown cruise ship berths presents many challenges that are unique to marine infrastructure design in southeast Alaska. These challenges include geotechnical conditions which vary from loose marine sediment to shallow, steep, sloping bedrock, large tidal ranges, and extreme environmental conditions. By utilizing the experience of designing and constructing in similar conditions in Alaska and elsewhere, the project team was able to address these challenges with the new berths’ design.

The damage caused by Hurricane Katrina and the Tohoku tsunami caused local and federal agencies to consider more robust structures that provide improved protection to coastal communities from severe storm conditions. This paper addresses the design, permitting, and construction considerations of two coastal projects that include: a hurricane storm surge barrier and a tsunami resistant marina. A key portion for these projects required defining the environmental conditions, determining limiting characteristics, strengthening design elements, incorporating permit restrictions, and overcoming construction challenges. Working collaboratively with regulators and contractors, these coastal protection structures were constructed to provide improved protection for their respective waterfront communities. This paper discusses the damage from severe events, the design approach, the regulatory, and permitting restrictions, improve the recovery time for future storm or tsunami damage and lessons learned for future storm events.

Port Metro Vancouver, located in the southwestern corner of British Columbia, is Canada’s largest port. Deltaport Container Terminal, at Roberts Bank just south of Vancouver, opened for business in 1997 and was an immediate success. In response to increased demand and growth forecasts Port Metro Vancouver, in partnership with the terminal operator (Global Container Terminals), decided to extend the two-berth caisson wharf and expand the container terminal to increase annual throughput by 50% from 1.2 to 1.8 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs). This paper will focus on some of the unique aspects of the design for the Deltaport Berth 3 expansion, and resolution of key challenges encountered during construction. Concrete caissons for the wharf extension were prefabricated off-site, towed to site, and then installed at super-elevated positions to compensate for anticipated differential settlements and rotations due to the added mass of the terminal reclamation fills. This elevation pre-set provided a precisely aligned wharf extension, smooth alignment of crane rails and a level apron pavement. A risk based approach was used to develop appropriate seismic design criteria for the main wharf and for the ship-to-shore crane rails. Displacement-based seismic criteria were used for the design of this concrete gravity caisson wharf. Marine vibro-densification of the crushed rock foundation fills, combined with vibro-replacement and dynamic compaction of apron backfill materials, were methods used to improve the bearing capacity, seismic resistance, and settlement performance. A fill management plan was implemented for placement and preloading of reclamation fills in the terminal area, optimized to use all preload material as backfill. Wave protection for the Deltaport tugboat facility was provided by a tied sheet-piled bulkhead, as a temporary measure during berth construction. The design philosophy for the north end closure wall for the wharf extension, was based on the consequences of overall wall integrity and rupture of individual elements. Significant difficulties were overcome during construction of these sheet-piled walls.

Colloidal nano-silica treatment for concrete was initially developed in the oil and gas industry to reduce the permeability of undersea well caps in the 1970s, acting as a capillary and pore-filling agent to reduce oil loss into seawater. Portland cement concrete with a high chloride diffusion rate leads to premature corrosion of reinforcing steel. Recently, colloidal nano-silica has been shown to reduce the chloride diffusion rate in conventional concrete and to reduce drying shrinkage. Laboratory testing utilizing chloride ponding and non-steady state chloride migration confirm previous work. Lifecycle corrosion modeling demonstrates the utility of colloidal nano-silica for extending the expected lifespan of concrete in saltwater ports. In addition, a test case is presented at the Port of Marseille, France, where a 70 m long boat dock was placed in 2014 with the goal of testing low shrinkage, less permeable concrete treated with colloidal nano-silica as a preamble to renovation of the 6 km sea wall that protects the harbor.

This paper will discuss the challenges and opportunities the Port of Los Angeles (POLA) encountered during the design and construction of the South Wilmington Grade Separation, an approximately 4,660 linear foot structure consisting of mostly cast in place box girder over an existing container terminal and railroad tracks in the City of Los Angeles. The project reduces delays, increases safety, improves goods movement and provides access to the Wilmington Waterfront by eliminating an existing conflict between vehicular traffic and two railroad crossings. Many challenges were encountered during the design and construction of the project. The paper will not only discuss these challenges but also highlight the opportunities that arose as result of design and construction challenges encountered over ten years. In addition, the paper will summarize how project challenges were proactively managed into opportunities in order to ensure the project remained on schedule and within a project budget of $84 million.

This paper will discuss the empirical results of incorporating composite paving interlayers within pavement sections of streets located on Terminal Island at the Port of Los Angeles. Historically, this area is subject to extensive pavement distress caused by high volumes of terminal truck traffic. In an effort to minimize impacts to operating terminal traffic, the Port of Los Angeles developed the use of experimental pavement sections to reduce the construction time, traffic control set up, and cost of the street repair work while still maintaining the structural integrity of the roadway. The objective of the experimental pavement overlay projects was to provide an effective and sustainable alternative to traditional full-depth street reconstruction with the incorporation of geocomposite materials. The primary focus of this paper will be on a lightweight polypropylene paving fabric reinforced with continuous filament fiberglass versus a paving mat interlayer and the benefits of each in regards to tensile strength, crack-resilience, moisture protection, and overall life span of the pavement.

Currently, standards and guidelines for camel design are somewhat limited and do not work for various vessels with different hull shapes at the same berthing facility. This paper introduces three different types of portable camels designed recently and installed for the ships with special hull shapes at U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Kodiak Station, Port of Seattle Cruise Ship Terminal 91, and Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam. All of these unique camel systems have been actively in service protecting multiple vessels and the pier and wharf facilities. This introduction of the camel designs will impact the development of future standards and guidelines for camel design with durable materials, manufacturing and installation methods, and maintenance.

This paper presents recent experience in applying discrete event simulation software to evaluate and validate the performance of automated horizontal transport (AHT) systems for automated container terminals. By simulating and comparing various types of AHTs with multiple layout configurations, equipment performance was quantified, and insights of the systems were gained. Critical questions were answered to guide terminal operators and equipment vendors who must make important decisions that will affect the long-term viability of valuable infrastructure and the efficiency of terminal operations. Discrete event simulation proved to be a valuable tool for terminal planners and operations staff alike to evaluate AHT system performance, quantify equipment requirements, and optimize the terminal layout.

Ships 23 containers abeam, with approximately 20,000 TEU containers, are now in operation and larger ships are in the works. These “ultra large container ships” carry 50% more containers than those in operation just a few years ago. Ship-to-shore container crane production levels need to be increased to meet the needs of the new ships. This paper presents an array of crane concepts and systems that can provide the productivity required to quickly service large ships in, or soon to be in, service. The paper also discusses existing and future systems, unique aspects of the systems, advantages and disadvantages, and expected wharf loads. Systems presented range from traditional cranes that can simultaneously lift multiple containers, to revolutionary cranes on elevated girders with multiple hoist systems that can move containers from the vessel directly into the yard.

The advent of new ultra-large container ships has created the need for larger cranes to serve them. Larger cranes necessarily put heavier loads on wharves. In many places, existing wharves cannot be easily strengthened or replaced to carry the heavier loads. Because ports seek to deploy the largest cranes possible to serve the largest ships, the question becomes: what is the biggest crane the wharf can support? The answer requires consideration of two related questions: (1) What is the relationship between crane working dimensions and wharf load? (2) What is the maximum load that the wharf can carry? The case study described in this paper answered these two questions for a wharf built in the 1980s.