AEI 2015: Birth and Life of the Integrated Building

BIM, as a best practice in the AEC/FM industry, provides a new set of processes and technologies in construction projects to improve productivity and reduce waste. Despite the significant growth in BIM adoption and research on technological aspects of BIM, far too little attention has been paid to research on BIM contracting. So far, two industry leading organizations (AIA and AGC) have developed standard forms of agreement for BIM contracting. However, many projects have used custom manuscripts to satisfy their special contractual needs, and the existing literature has not dealt with these industry-wide trends of BIM contracting. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to examine custom developed contracts in order to trace advances in BIM contracting. Through a detailed analysis of custom manuscripts, this research demonstrates that there are several areas of contracting that standard forms have not addressed. These include but are not limited to (1) requirements for BIM process inputs (e.g. BIM staff competencies), (2) requirements for BIM process management (e.g. BIM quality assurance and quality control, a metric based BIM processing assessment), (3) requirements for information modeling (e.g. landscape, facility management), and (4) requirements for data security (e.g. corruption of files, and data misuse). This study has practical implications for BIM implementation and future developments of inclusive BIM standard agreements.

Proper information exchange and integration of different project phases are the two fundamental needs of the construction industry. Building Information Modeling (BIM) has had a significant effect on the construction industry during the past decade. Modular building industry can potentially take advantage of BIM at least as much as site-built construction where most of the BIM application is. However, currently there is no specific standard or BIM platform for modular constructions. As a result, the integration level of information in this industry is relatively low, and this increases the project costs and complexity. This article will present a method to standardize the information exchanges for this type of construction. In the proposed methodology, first the product information will be organized; this will be done by developing the Product Architecture Model (PAM) for modular buildings. Then, a hierarchy of the physical assemblies and sub-assemblies of the building and corresponding modules will be developed, followed by assignment of nonphysical properties and attributes of each element. Next, an Information Delivery Manual (IDM) will be developed based on the National BIM Standard (NBIMS) method and the proposed PAM. The last step would involve development of Model View Definitions (MVDs) for different information exchanges at different phases of the project and between different disciplines based on the IFC file format data structure. Use of the IFC data structure for standardization of information exchanges will result in a highly interoperable BIM platform that could be used in a wide range of BIM software.

This paper focuses on a lifecycle evaluation of building sustainability following a Green Building standard—LEED. The purpose is to provide an efficient and effective way to guide the different stakeholders involved in the building lifecycle performance properly and realize sustainable practices, which includes the owner, designer, contractor, manager, and end-users. Building Information Modelling (BIM) is selected to be a platform to integrate all the information to improve interoperability. Starting from planning and design phase, LEED standards will be embedded in the BIM model to evaluate the building design. A rule-based system is developed to automatically evaluate the sustainability and provide flexibility for different scenarios to gain better green grade. This BIM model will be also used during the construction phase and data collected from the construction site will be integrated and the model will be updated in real-time using an RTLS system. The as-built situation will be checked to see if it matches the as-designed sustainability aspects. During the operation phase, energy consumption data are collected and energy consumption patterns are analyzed based on the spatial division in the building. The real energy performance of the building can be checked to see if the designed features reach the sustainability goal.

Building Information Modeling (BIM) has rapidly taken hold as the tool of choice for building design, engineering, construction, and facility management. This presentation describes university-level strategies for instruction in an architectural design studio that focus on joining design and technology in a fully integrated environment. The architectural design process taught in this studio is complemented with participation from professional engineers, fabrication consultants, and software specialists who join the dialog and significantly inform the process at critical junctures. This studio develops focused pedagogies for work with BIM technology in an Integrated Practice (IP) mode, both as a powerful force for design and as a critique of contemporary practice. Working in the classroom environment with professional structural, mechanical, and curtain wall consultants, collaborative architecture students teams solve complex design problems using innovative, integrated solutions.

As public buildings that are typically financed by charities, mosques are commonly designed, built, and operated using very limited resources. Hence, failure to design energy efficient mosques either affects occupants’ thermal comfort or re-orients the limited resources from other important activities to achieve that comfort. This paper documents part of an on-going study to determine the best allocation of limited financial resources to reach the most feasible energy saving in mosques in the United Arab Emirates. At this stage of the study, energy modeling is used to compare the impact of using various energy efficiency strategies on the cooling load. The results show the importance of controlling infiltration. They also show the value of insulating the walls and roof. However, a significant reduction in cooling load is achieved by splitting the mosque into two zones of operation. A similar result is demonstrated by using fans along with the air conditioning set at a higher temperature.

Energy consumption modeling can provide various applications such as analyzing building’s energy-related features and establishing baselines. It also serves as an important key tool to understand the energy efficient design requirement. Estimating building energy demand in a building is a challenging task, since it is depends on several parameters related to the building characteristics, equipment and systems, weather, occupants, and sociological factors. This paper describes the development of regression models, which are able to predict commercial building annual energy consumption in the early stages of the design. eQUEST and DOE-2 building simulation software programs were used to build and simulate individual building configuration that were generated using Monte-Carlo simulation technique. Ten thousand simulations for seven building shapes were performed to create comprehensive database covering the full ranges of design parameters. Several design parameters including building shape, materials and their thickness, and occupant schedule were considered in this study. The results of this study showed that the difference between regression-predicted and DOE-simulated annual building energy consumption are largely within 5%. It is envisioned that the developed regression models can be utilized to estimate the energy savings in the early stages of the design when different building schemes and design concepts are being considered.

Conversion of ambient vibrations to electrical power (energy scavenging, energy harvesting etc.) is an increasingly popular research area. However, many of these applications are focused at either the micro- (e.g., biosensors, wireless monitoring) or macro-scale (e.g., viscous dampers for buildings). This research focuses on a meso-scale application of energy harvesting of floor vibrations by numerical investigation and experimental validation of dynamic response of coupled linear floor-harvester systems. A refined methodology for numerical modeling of floor vibrations has been developed and validated against experimental tests of a composite steel-framed floor. The dynamic response of the floor is presented as a baseline for modeling of coupled harvester-floor systems. Using this baseline, the dynamic response of the coupled floor system is investigated for a range of design parameters and optimized for a mass/stiffness of 2.00%/5N combination resulting in acceleration exceedance of 0.1 g for 31.7% of the total peaks. The optimization, limitations, and extensions of the numerical model and a modeling protocol is discussed as well as future work.

Energy simulation software programs help designers and energy managers to have a better understanding about building energy consumption in the design phase, but there are some occupancy related factors that are missing in these software programs. Neglecting each of these factors may lead to underestimation or overestimation of energy consumption in commercial buildings during working hours. Also, energy managers cannot have a reliable comparison about efficiency of different energy saving policies due to abandoning these factors. In this regards, the current paper proposes an agent-based approach to simulate the impact of occupancy behavior on energy consumption and emission production of commercial buildings. A model was developed and then implemented in a case study to investigate the potential energy efficiency improvement of a simulation with dynamic occupancy parameters. The results of the developed model showed 19% discrepancy with eQuest as a conventional energy simulation software program over 27 months long period.

Here a suitable TMD system (water tank as a lumped mass without sloshing effect) is modeled on top/intermediate storey of building. The Response Spectrum method is considered as per IS 1893-Part1-2002. Seven RCC framed buildings are considered; rectangular buildings with vertical irregularity of 10, 14 and 20 storey with height to depth ratio (H/D) as 0.875, 1.23 and 1.6, respectively; and 14 storey L-shaped building with H/D as 1.23; rectangular buildings with vertical regularity of 10, 14 and 20 storey with H/D as 3.9, 5.44 and 8, respectively. The TMDs are modeled, with 3% total weight of each floor, using eight different cases. In total 63 building models are analyzed with/without TMDs by ETABS software and the results are presented. It is found that for extracting the maximum benefits, the buildings shall be modeled with three TMDs using 3-Gauss points at the intermediate storey as it reduces all the three parameters viz. time period, base shear and storey drift simultaneously to the maximum possible extent; and the reduction in the base shear is significant for buildings with smaller H/D as well as with higher H/D too. The TMD models are found to improve the performance of buildings under earthquake loads.

This paper investigates lateral stiffness-based comparative structural efficiency between today’s prevalent structural systems for tall buildings of various forms. Conventional rectangular box form tall buildings of 60, 80, and 100 stories are optimally designed first with braced tubes, diagrids, and outrigger structures to meet the identical lateral stiffness requirements. The structural efficiency of each system is studied comparatively depending on building heights and height-to-width aspect ratios. This study is expanded to investigate the comparative structural system efficiency of complex-shaped tall buildings, such as twisted, tilted, and tapered towers. For each complex form category, tall buildings are designed again with diagrids, braced tubes, and outrigger systems. Comparative efficiency between these structural systems in conjunction with various complex building forms, heights, and height-to-width aspect ratios is studied. Parametric structural models are generated to investigate the impacts of various important geometric configurations of complex-shaped tall buildings. The parametric models are exported to structural engineering software for analyses, design, and comparative studies. More efficient system selection and design optimization can substantially contribute to constructing sustainable built environments by saving building materials produced from our limited resources.

Buildings are an integral part of the broader civil infrastructure that ensures our welfare, livelihood, safety, and security. However, the sector also represents a burden to the society. Globally, building sector accounts for about 40% of total primary energy use. Natural disasters such as windstorms or earthquakes can cost billions of dollars in damages to structural and non-structural components of buildings. In this study, a resilient and sustainable building envelope is proposed through an innovative air-cavity double-skin façade (DSF) system constructed with a new concrete composite called high performance green hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete (HP-G-HyFRC). Flexural test results show that the proposed DSF system has a higher structural capacity and ductility as compared to a typical solid façade system. Energy modelling shows that the DSF system reduces heating and cooling energy by 16.5%. Also, the higher embodied energy of the system can be recovered within the first year of operation while the additional cost within the first 7 years of operation. Enhancing the thermal resistance of the DSF by using expanded polystyrene in place of air further reduces operational energy and return period.

This paper investigates the potential of double skin façades (DSF), which are composed of two layers of facades with substantial gaps between them, as an integrated damping system for tall buildings. The connectors between the inner and outer skins of the DSF system are designed to have low axial stiffness with a damping mechanism. Through this design, the vibration of the primary building structure can be substantially reduced. However, the excessive movements of the DSF outer skin masses are a critical design limitation. In order to mitigate this limitation, the tuned mass damper (TMD)/DSF damping (DSFD) interaction system is studied. Compared to the conventional TMD system, the TMD/DSFD interaction system requires a significantly reduced TMD mass ratio. Compared to the DSFD system, the movements of the DSF outer skin masses can be substantially reduced in the TMD/DSFD interaction system.

Land is a scarce commodity, a fact evident in many of our densely populated cities. In highly urbanized centers of culture, efficient use of land is such a necessity that excavating deep below-grade and below the groundwater table to create multiple cellar levels is often considered in the development of many mid-to-high rise towers. In recent years, several buildings with deep subterranean space have been successfully developed even when located within challenging geologic conditions and adjacent to fragile and historic structures. The Marriott Marquis Convention Center in Washington, DC is an example of development using these excavation techniques. Such extensive excavations are made possible by the organization of an experienced design team who use knowledge, advanced analytical tools, and innovative building techniques to construct rigid and watertight excavation support systems and integrate them to act as permanent basement walls and load-carrying foundation elements.

Skidmore, Owings & Merrill’s (SOM) Accelerators to Occupancy methodology engages both design and construction management professionals because it expedites large-scale project development via advanced, holistic project planning. Through its steps, the pre-design, design and procurement, early phased occupancy, and construction phases—four development phases for large-scale projects—are mapped out before a project’s start so that its timeline and anticipated development milestones are clearly articulated for all involved parties. Mapping the entire design and construction process this way makes clear potential steps that can be taken in order to achieve better design and construction process efficiencies. These achieved efficiencies, in turn, improve constructability and reduce costs, construction time, and time to project occupancy. It is hoped that by introducing the Accelerators to Occupancy methodology; demonstrating its use and effects via the Jumeira Gardens—Super Phase I case study, an unbuilt SOM project located in Dubai; and highlighting accelerators that greatly improve project development, audience members will learn how to further advance design development and state-of-the-art construction practices that can be used on large scale projects.

To raise the awareness and understanding about the building information modeling (BIM) and laser scanning tools and applications in construction industry, a questionnaire was administered to participants from different background and workplaces. The results indicate the participants’ positive perceptions of employing such tools in their workplace. This study also reports on a case study using BIM and laser scanning tools on Teknopark Building in North Cyprus. For this purpose, a CADeyes camera was used to capture the building’s 3D spatial and visual data, which were then analyzed using Revit to generate a 3D model. The outcomes revealed the efficient and effective use of these tools in the construction sector. The findings of this study, therefore, recommend designers and end-users to use these applications in order to meet the basic requirements of design and construction as well as to deal with the challenges such as errors, risks and costs of construction projects.

There has been an increasing interest in the concept of relational contracting (RC) in the construction industry. The performance of RC approaches in construction projects, especially in highly complex and/or time-constrained infrastructure construction projects, is not very satisfying, although there have been sporadic improvements. Hence, this paper aims to map the practices of three main RC contractual arrangements (i.e. project partnering, alliance contracting, and integrated project delivery) to Relational Contract Theory (RCT). The comparative analysis of these three RC contractual arrangements is undertaken to illustrate how different arrangements are weighted in different key elements derived from RCT. Following this study researchers can proceed to investigate situational variables that will make a particular RC approach most suitable. Industrial practitioners can use the findings as a description of the concept and a starting point to facilitate the RC practices at the procurement phase of a RC project.

Progressive collapse is defined as the spread of a localized structural failure to other structural members resulting in a disproportionate collapse of the global system. Building codes suggest one method of mitigating progressive collapse involves provisions for load resistance through catenary behavior across two-span conditions caused by the loss of column support. In concrete structures, reinforcing steel is one potential source of catenary load carrying capacity. Currently, design codes allow static approximations of the dynamic systems for design. While this approach is appropriate for many structural systems, the catenary behavior of a two span reinforced concrete beam provides opportunities for closer investigation of its static and dynamic behavior. This paper presents analytical and experimental investigations of geometrically nonlinear static and dynamic analyses which characterize the behavior of the catenary system. As a first approximation to the behavior of the complex system, an analysis and experimental evaluation of the behavior of a bare steel wire is examined. Geometrically nonlinear effects, even in the linear elastic regime, are significant. The result of this work is an analytical (and experimentally corroborated) characterization of catenary behavior of reinforcing steel that may be used by researchers, code developers, and designers to estimate catenary capacity under a variety of conditions.

Including mechanical devices into structural systems can lead to innovative enhancement of performance of structures subjected to extreme loadings. These devices can be designed to provide required strength while controlling behavior to protect structural elements from damage. Systems can be designed to “fuse” during extreme events such as strong earthquake ground motions. The result is resilient structural systems—optimized structural systems that perform better than more conventional system. Until recently, the San Francisco International Terminal was the largest seismically isolated building in the world. Friction pendulum isolators were introduced to protect the superstructure of this essential facility and to assist in the goal of continued operation for the facility after a major seismic event. The 8 Washington Residential Project, also in San Francisco, is a new paradigm in high performance structures where protection of the initial investment is essential. Triple friction pendulum isolation bearings are used to control building behavior and reduce damage even with the potential of an extreme earthquake and marginal soil conditions. Structural steel pins combined with cast-in-situ reinforced concrete trusses provide links between large wing sections of the Huawei Research and Development Facility in Shanghai, China. Steel pins are designed to provide continuum over atria during wind and moderate seismic events. If the structure is subjected to extreme ground motions the pins are designed to fuse, dissipating energy while protecting the reinforced concrete structure from damage. Pin-Fuse Seismic Systems have been developed to dissipate energy in seismic events through friction rather than plastic deformation of primary steel systems. The Pin-Fuse Joints and Frames have been designed and tested as mechanisms that protect buildings from damage. Joints remain fixed during wind and low to moderate seismic conditions and fuse or slip during significant seismic events. Instead of linking reinforced concrete shear wall systems with conventionally reinforced link beams, a steel mechanism has been developed to provide full connection between wall elements during wind and moderate seismic conditions but can also fuse or slip during very significant seismic events. Link-Fuse Joints use friction to dissipate energy while maintaining elastic behavior in linking elements and neighboring wall elements.

Nail plates are used extensively in the manufacture of wood trusses. Another possible use is as shear connectors for built-up sections. Published capacities of nail plates are limited to loadings that place the nail plate in tension. To determine the flexural capacity and stiffness of a built-up section, the capacity and stiffness of nail plates placed in shear have to be known. A series of direct shear tests and flexural tests were conducted to determine the behavior of shear plates in shear and the flexural behavior of a built-up wood stud.

Changes in model energy code requirements have placed a greater emphasis on creating a complete building envelope by including a layer of rigid board insulation between building framing members and the exterior sheathing. This layer of insulation creates a gap between the fastened sheets affecting connection stiffness, strength, and failure mode. The current cold-formed steel provisions do not take into account the presence of such a gap. In this study, shear tests were conducted to explore the effect of rigid board insulation, steel sheet thickness, and screw diameter on screw connection strength and behavior. Test results indicate that, regardless of failure mode, connections with rigid board insulation thicknesses of 1 in. or greater exhibit reduced capacity and experience large displacements prior to failure. A proposed framework for a design procedure includes prediction of failure mode, strength, and stiffness based on connection geometry.

The key objective of the present study is to compare two types of building envelopes, glass curtain walls and insulated brick walls with windows, as applied on a hypothetical building case, with respect to their life-cycle energy and environmental impacts. An integrated energy and environmental Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology was applied to achieve the research objective. LCA analysis is accomplished in four stages: goal and scope definition, inventory modeling, impact assessment, and interpretation of results. The impacts were assessed in three categories of fossil fuel consumption, global warming, and ozone depletion. We conclude that a brick wall system with window primarily consisting of brick veneer, air gap, polystyrene insulation, concrete block and gypsum plasterboard will result in lower environmental impacts in all categories.

To accurately determine the stresses, the design engineer typically relies on detailed finite element analysis (FEA). While the associated computational cost is often acceptable for complex geometries or atypical applications, it is often desirable to reduce dependence on FEA wherever possible. There exists in the literature some closed-form analytical solutions for glass composites (beams or plates), but these are typically limited to edge supported conditions and are often intractable for design purposes. As a result, it is desirable to obtain simplified methods for design of some of the most commonly encountered geometries, loads and materials for point-supported structural glass through numerical parametric studies. This research is two-fold in that it provides detailed parametric studies of point-supported laminated glass and compares the results to analytical and experimental results. First, existing specifications for design are evaluated to be used as a baseline for subsequent FEA but are found to give stress results that vary by up to 44%. Parametric studies of point-supported, fully-tempered, laminated glass specimens are performed for various thickness, number and location of point supports, panel geometry and loading. The results of the parametric studies are found to be within 2% of experimental results. The disparity between industry specified geometry and acceptable stresses prompts further research into development of reliable hand-calculations.

This research presents test results of an experimental study to investigate tensile strength degradation of stressed-GFRP bars embedded in concrete after accelerated aging. The experimental program included twelve tensile specimens with two different types of GFRP bars [Wrapped surface (herein, Type-A) and Sand-coated surface (herein, Type-B)]. Specimens were placed in a weathering chamber [46°C (115°F) and RH: 80%] with a sustained load. In addition, acoustic emission as a nondestructive evaluation was performed to investigate the degradation of GFRP bars. Results revealed that the residual tensile strengths were about 85.5 and 82.5% (reduction by 14.5 and 17.5%) after 300 days of exposure, respectively, for Type-A and Type-B bars. This paper devotes attention to the acoustic emission performance on the aged GFRP tensile curves. Test results indicated that changes in AE parameters due to aging could be identified as strength/stiffness degradation. AE parameters also showed a good correlation with the mechanical responses of test specimens after accelerated aging.

The use of a flexible formwork appears to be ill-suited for casting any concrete member. However, this method of casting concrete may in fact be used anywhere a rigid formwork is used and is beginning to attract attention as a method of construction. This paper will highlight a few of those engineers, architects, designers, and researchers worldwide who have made use of this unique way of forming concrete and focuses on fabric formworks for use in forming concrete members used in architectural works. A significant amount of research remains to be done to bring this unique method of forming concrete into everyday practical use by the construction industry. Researchers in the university faculties of architecture and engineering (structural) as well as design practitioners in these fields will surely benefit from this paper, which provides a state-of-the-art update on the use of fabric as a formwork for concrete construction.

When there is insufficient straight bar development length or bonded length to fully develop the force in a reinforcing bar the bar is terminated in a hook or head. The hook or head will provide an additional bearing force to resist the bar force in combination with the bond force. It is assumed in typical bond models and code equations that the ratio of load carried by bond and bearing is constant. Tests on 18 beam-end specimens with either hooked or headed bars shows that the ratio of load carried by bond and bearing is not constant for all applied loads and that in certain situations bond will carry the large majority of the load and in other situations bearing carries the large majority of load.

This research has implemented simulation modeling software, Energy Plus, to predict the effect of passive louver shades across a standard year on a home within the Midwest. This energy model of the building has been validated against actual experimental data, over the course of six months. This research optimized a passive louver shading array, unique to this latitude, by generating converging simulations to track energy demands of the heating and cooling systems of the home. The optimized array characteristics are derived from the minimization of the overall energy performance of these systems. Based on a proposed louver configuration a reduction of 17% in overall energy consumption was predicted when compared to a similar house model without a louver array. A Louver Configuration Input Program was developed to allow a user to input continuous values within the range of variable and be output an estimate of energy loading.

Solar louvers and light shelves serve as passive cooling, shading, and lighting mechanisms. The goal of this research was to optimize a passive system for this particular location and building shape/orientation by observing how the temperature and lighting change with different outdoor building attachments is the goal of this project. As part of this pilot study this research provides some of the methodology being used. The first method examines a physical scale model using the Sun Path Method. A second comparative method was used to compare the results further quantifying the results of the first method through computer simulation software known as Ecotect. Based on the methodologies used the simulations yielded a reduction in solar thermal gain of 10–15% during the summer months when solar shading devices were used yet had little to no impact on the daylighting effect.

A building's facade has significant impact on energy consumption. This paper investigates a specific facade configuration based on origami: kaleidocycle rings that can be morphed to enhance daylight uniformity and reduce total energy consumed for heating and cooling. This paper utilizes simulation techniques for identifying the most efficient daylight and thermal performance by incorporating parametric optimization using Grasshopper and Diva-for-Rhino. Analysis was conducted using the Daylight Dynamic Performance Metrics (DDPMs) specifically Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA) and Annual Sunlight Exposure (ASE) based on the new IES approved daylight metrics. The simulation was carried out for a south-oriented façade of an office room in Aswan, Egypt, through two phases both used genetic algorithm to drive kaleidocycle parameters. The first phase simulated daylighting for façade optimization which influenced the second phase that run to reach the balance point between daylight and thermal performance. Results demonstrate that kaleidocycle rings of 26 cm size and 64 rotation angle exceed the LEED V4 daylighting requirements and achieve a remarkable energy saving of 23% in comparison to non-optimized configuration.

Accurate and efficient measurement of the luminance distribution of the sky and the sun is very important for daylight harvesting. The conventional way to measure the luminance of the sky is to use a luminance meter or a sky scanner. The measurement resolutions of the two instruments are very low (1 degree for LS-100 luminance meter and 11 degree for a typical sky scanner). Neither of the two methods is able to measure the high luminance of the sun (1.6 × 10⁹) and its corona. In addition, the sky scanner measures only 2/3 of the celestial hemisphere. This study used the recently developed high dynamic range (HDR) photogrammetry for luminance mapping the sky and the sun. This paper introduced a camera-array-based measurement technology and a luminance replacement method to measure the luminance distribution of the entire celestial hemisphere. Two Canon EOS Rebel T2i cameras each fitted with a Sigma 4.5 mm circular fisheye lens were set up for the measurement of the sky and the sun, respectively. The luminance data, together with the three dimensional XYZ coordinates were extracted from the HDR images using HDR photogrammetry. The measurement results of the luminance distribution of the sky and that of the sun were combined together to form the luminance distribution of the entire celestial hemisphere. Then, an experiment was carried out in the Clinton State Park at Lawrence, Kansas to validate the measurement method, and the preliminary results of the experiment were discussed. The measurement protocol was also introduced. It was shown that our method might be applicable to the measurement of the luminance distribution of the sky and the sun, and could contribute to climate-based daylight modeling research studies.

In the design of structures, incorporating resilient structural systems is important to protect the structures in extreme or abnormal load events. In many cases, these systems are necessary to ensure continued operation of an essential facility, although it is also important in protecting the investment associated with a major development, or the preservation of historic buildings. Various systems have been developed to accommodate abnormal loads caused by seismic ground motions that are designed to create a high level of resiliency. The intent of this paper is to consider resiliency for a range of building types and the benefits of enhanced seismic structural systems when subjected to extreme loads. Because the Ninth District U.S. Court of Appeals, San Francisco, constructed in 1905, is so important historically, the building was seismically retrofitted to include friction pendulum bearings under existing columns, located just above the foundation level. At 365 Main Street, San Francisco, an existing 1940s non-ductile reinforced concrete warehouse was converted into a state-of-the-art internet co-location facility by introducing seismic isolation as well as an entirely self-sufficient fully redundant building services systems allowing for continued operation after an extreme seismic event. The Cathedral of Christ the Light in Oakland, California, combines seismic isolation with a reinforced concrete structure to achieve a building with a desired life of hundreds of years, even though the site is only a few kilometers from the Hayward Fault. The 222 South Main Office Building, Salt Lake City and the San Diego Central Courthouse use a diagonal system of unbonded braces and viscous dampers respectively to address building resiliency.

The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) is an interstate authority that builds, owns, and operates a region-wide multi-modal transportation infrastructure which includes tunnels, bridges, airports, seaports, bus stations, and the World Trade Center. As custodian of infrastructure that is critical to the regional and national economy and the national logistics supply chain, the Authority faces difficult choices in allocating State of Good Repair (SGR) resources to its many assets, some of which are a century old. Furthermore, SGR imperatives often compete with emerging hazards (e.g, security, flooding) for scarce resources, creating a dichotomy of choice. These circumstances led the PANYNJ to investigate a process that would evaluate project priority on the basis of multi-hazard resilience metrics. Tunnels, Bridges &Terminal (TB&T) Department of the PANYNJ is currently investigating the development of a resilience management framework for critical agency infrastructure that focuses on resilience to all disruptions, incorporates lessons learned, and rationalizes upgrades across a broad spectrum of hazards. Building on the risk and resilience methodologies introduced by the Department of Homeland Security, Science and Technology Directorate (DHS-S&T), the PANYNJ just completed a pilot program in which these existing resilience management methodologies were customized to vehicular tunnels and bus terminals. The pilot effort applied the resilience management methodologies to the Holland Tunnel and the Port Authority Bus Terminal to evaluate their resilience to Superstorm Sandy-like flood hazards. This paper will summarize some of the key contributions in this pilot effort: the development and demonstration of a resilience-based framework for prioritizing projects. The large range in costs and benefits of the piloted projects highlighted the need to quantify the far-reaching downstream consequences of a project’s improvements, as well as the ability to capture sensitivity of hypercritical assets. Project performance metrics were developed that encompass measures of enhancement to resilience, the cascading effects and their extents, to provide a more comprehensive means of capturing project benefits.

One of society’s greatest concerns regarding abnormal demands is that a single event can cause a disproportionate extent of interruption of operations and ultimately harm to humans. The engineering community has worked in a coordinated fashion to develop solutions that minimize the number of fatalities and interruption of operations infrastructure in response to abnormal demands, such as hurricanes, flooding, seismic events, etc. Although design codes have been developed and are being maintained by different disciplines, no clear steps have been taken to propose an integrated design process with the explicit aim to reduce interruption of operations. Consequently, even with the best standards and design guidance available, optimized solutions for specific classes of hazards will be developed by some disciplines, inadvertently straining the designs of others. Designing solutions to an abnormal demand, concurrently with other hazards is not commonly considered in the industry. Currently building design codes do not exist that encompass considerations of multiple disciplines in providing guidance for specific hazards. What is missing in the engineering community is standards, design guidance, or even best practices which can improve overall performance of building systems to multiple hazards. This paper will summarize some of the developments that have been pursued with a multi-disciplinary approach to design building solutions for abnormal demands. Additionally, this paper will tie into the larger initiative of the AEI Building Integration Solution Committee for Abnormal Demands on Buildings, for developing a multidisciplinary assessment/design methodology that encompasses multiple abnormal demands.

Cold weather condensation problems can affect buildings in northern climates, especially facilities that require elevated interior relative humidity levels for operation. This paper discusses cold weather condensation problems at the building envelope and reviews procedures involved with investigating and developing repairs to address these problems. In particular, it will discuss considerations for using data collection monitoring both as an investigative and validation tool. A case study is presented to outline investigative and mock-up repair approaches that were implemented at a laboratory facility in a northern climate experiencing air infiltration/exfiltration and cold weather condensation problems. The study exposes the importance of data collection monitoring and how it serves in evaluating condensation issues. Specifically, it discusses the need to establish more accurate interior design parameters to account for the presence of local micro-climates in order to avoid underestimating condensation potential.

As the potential impacts of climate change are better understood, it is imperative that the building industry anticipates solutions that resist traditional settlement patterns and instead look to science to build for resiliency and adaptation. Human development has traditionally been around water for human health and commerce. As the impacts of climate change become more apparent, these traditional settlement patterns may in fact be endangering cities and building occupants while causing climate refugees. This three-part paper starts with a summary of the findings of the International Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) 5th report specific to the built environment. Part two reviews an in-depth study the authors have developed that utilizes large-scale computing to evaluate building sensitivity to climate change. A selection of parametric models for building forms seen around the world are simulated to determine annual energy performance for current and predictive weather profiles based on IPCC’s 3rd assessment report. These simulations required the use of cloud computing resources, and the results showcase how a building’s end-use break-downs vary in different parts of the world over time with the impacts of climate change. These results are being used by the SOM team to better assess risk and climate change impacts. Part three proposes solutions to the question that practitioners face daily: how can we design for resiliency when many codes and regulations are behind rapidly advancing climate change impacts? Mitigation, resiliency, and adaptation strategies will be reviewed. Further applications of future climate change predictive weather files will be discussed such as the impacts to building design and risk assessment.

The world is accelerating into the 21st century and will continue to be stressed by population increase. The metropolis must be part of the solution since 75% of the world’s population will live in cities by 2050. Status quo design will not provide the required solutions in the metropolis—more integrated system are required. Buildings, districts, and cities must be sustainably designed not only as individual components but also as parts of larger networks. Increasing connectedness within cities will decrease resource consumption, despite the higher EUI of tall buildings, and lead to higher qualities of life that include longer life expectancies, higher productivity, and enhanced resiliency. More importantly, a new generation of architects and engineers will need to integrate these designs and systems holistically and it is more about synthesizing and harmonizing the integrated whole.

Compressed and stabilized earthen masonry (CSEM) offers a sustainable, affordable, and locally appropriate alternative to traditional residential construction. In a National Science Foundation funded project carried out by the authors, the suitability of engineered earthen construction in high-wind climates as the main wind force resisting system (MWFRS) is investigated. The fundamental research program includes experimental investigations on the material properties of cement stabilized earth blocks, mortars, and assemblies. However, the particular subject of this paper is the remaining research gap with respect to available design processes and construction details in material-specific and general design codes and guidelines. In this project, this gap in knowledge is addressed by using the experimentally determined material characteristics and traditional reinforced masonry design methods to develop high-wind resistant wall systems using CSEM. Various reinforced double wythe CSEM wall system alternatives are proposed with roof-to-wall and wall-to-foundation connections and wall section details. Also, due to CSEM assemblies not meeting minimum strength requirements, bond beam designs made of CSEB units and CMU are proposed.

In masonry wall buildings, masonry walls constitute the building envelope, gravity load resisting system, and the lateral load resisting system at the same time. Therefore, major damage or a loss of integrity on the building envelope directly affects the integrity of the entire structural system; the loss of load-bearing members can cause catastrophic failures without much warning or time for evacuation of the building. The brittle, heterogeneous, and anisotropic properties of masonry make masonry structures susceptible to such failures, when certain causes and failure mechanisms were not considered in the original design. Codes and specifications that relate to progressive collapse analysis, such as the Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) 04-023-03, cover steel and concrete structures in more depth and detail than masonry structures, making the analysis of existing masonry structures challenging. This paper reviews the available literature related to the assessment and retrofit of masonry structures against progressive collapse to showcase the insufficiency of available information in this topic. The paper also looks at current codes and standards, and compare practices between the U.S. and Europe. Results of the review suggest that there is need for further research in the topic and a need for increased detail in the provisions for masonry in the applicable codes.

Performance of neural networks mainly depends on the weights adopted and on the training the data including historic examples, which are used as input variables. The input of the ANN characterizes the different realizations of pumping, with each input indicating the pumping level of a well. The output is capable of characterizing the objectives and constraints of the optimization, such as attainment of regulatory goals, value of cost functions, and time. The supervised learning algorithm of back propagation was used to train the network. Once trained, the ANN begins a search through various realizations of pumping patterns to determine whether or not they will be successful. A case study of a project under JNNURM program being executed by K P C Projects Ltd., has been presented in this paper. Due to the recent severe global recession, company is facing severe problem and all the construction activities slowed down. To increase the productivity of all resources, it is necessary to forecast the costs arriving from resources so that the total cost of project can be reduced. This deals with the construction of 512 Houses in (G+3) pattern, in 32 blocks located at Karmanghat, Hyderabad. It was found from the results that the ANN approach was optimized the total cost of the project by 3.91% when compared with the actual cost of the project and the duration was reduced from 150 days to 142 days, which is around 5% of the duration of the project.

This paper provides an overview of different building information modeling applications in construction projects in developed and developing countries. Different building information modeling criteria are identified using literature review and interviews with experts. A case study for discovering BIM applications in building construction projects in Egypt is carried out to also identify its different tools and techniques. This paper provides essential overview of building information modeling applications that can be useful to construction project teams in developing countries. The BIM assessment solves a major problem that faces construction project teams, who want to select Building Information Modeling applications to plan, execute, and control their projects.

Although the numbers of injuries in the construction industry have decreased significantly since legislation of the Occupational Safety and Health Act in the 1970s, more than 700 workers face fatalities every year. As a result, in any construction project, addressing safety challenges remains one of the top priorities; safety managers constantly attempt to enhance the effectiveness of training materials provided to workers. With the emergence of the Net Generation—those who have grown up with information technology—project managers will be obliged to relinquish passive means of training and place more emphasis on creating active learning experiences that embrace state-of-the-art technologies. One of the technologies that is gaining wide acceptance for educational purposes is virtual reality environments (VRE). It has been found that VRE has a great potential to engage students in classrooms and to help construction works retain safety knowledge. Thus, the objectives of this study are to synthesize the potential applications of virtual reality environments, explore the current adoption rate of VRE to train workers regarding safety issues, and identify limitations in the current body of knowledge. The objectives are fulfilled by conducting an in-depth literature review and interviewing safety training providers across the United States. The results of the study indicated that the current adoption rate of VRE to provide safety training is minimal and safety professionals prefer hands on training. The findings of the paper summarize the current strength and weaknesses of virtual reality applications in construction safety and provide suggestions for further improvements.

For decades, structural design has erroneously been taught to architecture students using a modified version of an engineering-based pedagogical model. Instead of imparting a broad range of information for how structural design considerations could be critically integrated into architectural design, these courses instead focus on a narrow range of curricular topics and analytical methods that negatively impact the preparedness of architectural students for practice. To help address these deficiencies, the entire building technology course sequence at Iowa State University, has been dramatically reconfigured as a collaborative and integrative teaching environment that uses active learning environments and unique classroom activities to enhance student learning. Specifically this paper will present three different labs that occur during the final five-week course module of this structural design sequence. Each of the three exercises demonstrates particularly important, capstone-level, learning objectives. The paper will describe the means, methods, challenges, and benefits of these specific assignments and how these represent other important improvements throughout the new sequence. Examples of student work will be shown, and an assessment of the efficacy of the assignments will be presented including reflections upon lessons learned and suggestions for future improvements.

The use of solar energy as a renewable energy source to reduce fossil fuel consumption is now widely accepted as one of the best ways to mitigate pollution problems and improve living conditions. Solar Decathlon Competition has been developed by the Department of Energy (DOE) to encourage the use of solar energy and other renewable energy sources toward the goal of building sustainable houses. This competition was held in 2002 for the first time. Since then, it has taken place every two years in 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. In order to learn from such experiences, we need to study different components of these well-documented competition houses, which could lead to better understanding of the application of different innovative materials and methods in construction of even conventional but energy efficient homes. In this paper, the past Solar Decathlon Competition projects are reviewed in order to categorize major components of the buildings. In order to evaluate the effect of the components used on sustainability and energy efficiency, various criteria developed by the solar decathlon competition rules are used. Some of these criteria have varied over the years, but the major ones can be summarized as follows: architecture, appliances, lighting, hot water, market appeal, affordability, comfort zone performance, and energy balance. The components that will be discussed in this paper include floors, roof, structural framing type, wall systems, windows, and insulation materials. The attributes of such components are evaluated considering certain aspects of sustainability relevant to Solar Decathlon projects. Furthermore, the percentages of different structural framing, insulation and glazing types among other major components used in the design are determined and presented.

Over the last decade it has been realized by the education community that progressive educational curricula and techniques are necessary to achieve educational outcomes, especially in the areas of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. One such program is Project Lead the Way (PLTW), which strives to help better prepare high school students for college programs in these areas. There has been some research showing that PLTW courses help high school students on statewide exams, but no research has been done on how PLTW experiences improve student performance at the collegiate level. This research studied the effects of PLTW on freshman Architectural Engineering student performance in terms of their freshman GPA. The results of this research showed that students with PLTW experience did have a higher GPA at the end of their freshman year than those students without PLTW experience. Analysis shows that there is a statistical significance to account for the difference in the student performance between the two groups, which validates the claim that PLTW does help prepare high-school students for college.

This paper presents the findings of two equivalent size homes (990 ft²) using Energy-10 (version 1.8) software. The home’s design was based on the solar house entry from Missouri S&T into the Department of Energy 2013 Solar Decathlon. The intent of the research was to determine the energy efficiency, consumption, and generation. The comparative home of similar size and layout was modelled using the IBC 2012 recommended insulated values and standard construction methods. As a baseline for occupant usage, a fictional American couple was created and a breakdown of their daily lifestyle was recorded to accurately depict the magnitude of energy consumption. Based on the comparative analysis and suggested energy conserving strategies, a 71% energy savings was forecasted using the Energy-10 software. In addition, if a 9.1 kW photovoltaic array is also installed on a home of this size, it is possible to fully offset the energy consumption of the home. The Missouri S&T Solar House Team used the forecasted energy usage and production to evaluate the integrity of their design for the Solar Decathlon in October 2013.

Green roof systems are being included in buildings to help make the buildings more sustainable. These can range from extensive green roof systems added to existing roofs with relatively small plants to intensive green roof systems that include larger plants and a significant amount of soil. Little consideration has been given to the effects that these roof systems will have on the fire safety of the building, especially when retrofitted to an existing building. This paper examines the effects of the green roof systems during fire. Considered are the increased loads and a modeled fire in a classroom of a school. The results show that failure to increase the load carrying capacity to accommodate heavier loads would lead to conditions of structural collapse without an increase in the structural design. Also, the green roof systems will limit the ability of firefighters to ventilate the fire from the roof, which is demonstrated to be beneficial in decreasing the temperature in the fire room.

Risk can be defined as the product of the likelihood of a failure and the consequences of the failure. For fire protection and detection systems, the failure of a system to operate properly on demand can mean the difference between a fire with relatively minor consequences and one with major consequences. Consequently, the risk associated with fire protection and detection systems failure is great if the reliability of the system is not controlled at a high level. A confounding factor in fire protection system reliability is the infrequent demand placed on fire protection systems. In event of a fire, fire protection and detection systems are expected to perform on demand despite years and potentially decades of inactivity. Inspection, testing and maintenance (ITM) schedules are specified in various fire safety codes and standards, such as those published by the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA); however, most ITM schedules were developed based on a consensus of engineering judgment constituting “good practice”, which became code. Furthermore, when ITM schedules are modified in codes and standards, changes are still largely based on a consensus process following the failure of a system that resulting in loss of property or fatalities. While this process has been effective in ensuring a relatively high level of fire protection system reliability, it is difficult to quantify the level of reliability actually being provided and the question then becomes, “Do the currently specified ITM schedules in the NFPA standards provide for systems with 90% reliability, 99% reliability, or some other level of reliability?” If a different level of reliability is desired, how should engineers revise ITM schedules to achieve the specified level of reliability? To answer these and related questions, the authors have developed a conceptual method to apply reliability-based decision-making to ITM frequencies for fire protection and detection systems. This paper describes the methods used and provides several proof of concept applications for it use.

Many of the tall buildings built around the world have more than one occupancy type within the building. Often times there are hotel, office, and residential (either apartment or condominium) occupying a single structure. Each of these has different opportunities. Residential and hotel occupancies have a concentrated use of domestic water in the morning and evening, whereas offices have a low demand for domestic water that is consistent throughout the day. This provides the opportunity to share domestic water systems, with a consequential reduction in infrastructure, which would not occur in separate buildings. Additionally, the energy from this domestic water can be captured through micro turbines in the drains, and grey water systems that not only reuse the water, but extract the energy in the water through the use of heat pumps. Another opportunity is through condensate recovery from air handlers. Due to pressure gradient changes and the need to keep core sizes down in tall buildings, floor by floor air handlers are typically used on office floors. The offices are generally cooling load driven and generate a significant amount of condensate. Even the building itself can generate condensation, especially super-talls in hot environments, as the moisture in the night air condenses on the surface of the building, and can be captured through appropriate drainage design. In the area of indoor environmental quality, tall buildings offer the opportunity to develop a solar chimney component that drives natural ventilation airflow without the use of fan energy. This saves energy, provides a balanced daylighting strategy and improves indoor air quality through natural ventilation.

Tall buildings consume more energy per unit area than low rise building. This can be oberserved through the New York City energy disclosure ordinance. As a result, it is more difficult to get to lower energy/net zero in tall buildings. Innovative strategies for tall buildings are necessary and can include: Integrating buildings to natural and artificial environment: Natural environment of a tall building vary with height, creative energy systems must integrate a building with its natural dynamic environment. Also, the energy system of a building must integrate with the building to form a holistic organism. This can be illustrated through tall buildings similar to Pertamina Tower, which utilizes geothermal heat to get to net positive. However, building energy usage intensity increases with height, a true holistic integration needs to go beyond buildings. Integration beyond buildings: To advance to the highest level of sustainable design performance, 21st century tall buildings optimization needs to be happening at larger scales, from campuses to neighborhoods to cities. This provides the largest opportunity for optimization.

To date, most considerations for the impact of carbon emissions in the built environment directly relate to building operations. However, in most major projects it takes approximately 20 years of operational life before operational carbon exceeds the carbon embodied in the original construction. Minimum acceptance goals for implementation must then be created to encourage a responsible approach to environmental design—one that accounts for carbon emissions from groundbreaking through the building’s service life. A tall building, at the time of construction, has a large impact on the environment through the production of building components, delivery, and construction as well as considering life-cycle in areas of abnormal loading (i.e., seismicity). SOM has developed an advanced algorithm called the Environmental Analysis Tool that evaluates embodied carbon as well as cost benefits of enhanced seismic force resisting systems in buildings and infrastructures. An evaluation of embodied carbon in over 200 built structures has revealed trends and correlations among common design parameters such as building height, occupancy type, seismic and wind conditions. This information can be utilized to set design goals and to provide standards for the reduction of embodied carbon through high performance seismic systems such as seismic isolation and pin-fuse devices, as well as ideas including Sustainable Form-Inclusion Systems (SFIS). Finally, an advanced parametric model has been created for new and existing urban developments. The Parametric City Model (PCM) will be used to illustrate the effects of material, construction, and urban density on the environment. Specific national and international tall building examples will be discussed. Buildings will include many of the tallest to date, including the Burj Khalifa, Dubai. These projects amongst others will be used as a basis to develop standards for design and construction for embodied carbon in structures. It is the hope that these requirements would eventually become standards for the industry.

Several practical tools for the characterization of the optimal layout of material in a structure have been developed in recent years based on both numerical and analytical approaches. The focus of this paper is to describe some of these methodologies and illustrate with examples their application to high-rise buildings and long span structure design.

SOM has made it part of its ethos and philosophy to continually explore new holistic directions in all of its projects, and particularly in tall buildings. These efforts include exploring the use of existing high performance enclosure solutions that are already available today, as well as developing new methods to help increase performance such as “iterative energy modeling for facades”. This paper will examine three areas—structural-façade integration, glass advancements, and performative complexity—where recent SOM projects have implemented these concepts in various ways in order to enhance the design and performance of tall buildings.

The objective of this paper is to investigate the integrated design approach implemented in the early design phases and identify how it informed the design process of the Net-Zero Energy Building (NZEB) case study. The four components studied were the stakeholders, processes, technology, and phases of assessment. A series of semi-structured, open ended interviews were conducted with the key decision makers and decision facilitators to identify their role in the early design process, the design approach adopted, rationale for decision-making, types of evaluations performed, and tools used for analysis. Through this process, the key phases of decision-making were identified that resulted in understanding of the path to achieving Net-Zero Energy (NZE) design goal and performance outcome. The inter-relationship between the project objectives, decision context, occupants usage patterns, strategies and integrated systems, building operation and renewable energy production was identified through a series of knowledge maps and visual process models leading to the identification of the key performance indicators.

Recent efforts in the development of innovative, “green” building materials and components have primarily focused on reducing the initial embodied energy and carbon of conventional materials (e.g., concrete, plastics). While these efforts are often commended and advocated by sustainable material certification programs and green building rating schema, recent research has shown that reducing the cradle-to-gate impacts of building materials may actually compromise their long-term durability, effectively reducing their ultimate in-service lifetime. This paper highlights research progress on the implementation of a next-generation sustainable materials evaluation framework that reconciles initial reductions in environmental impact (e.g., embodied energy, embodied carbon) and the effects on service life through integrated service-life/lifecycle assessment models for innovative materials. Using “green” concrete as a case-study example, this paper demonstrates that the “sustainability” of a material is spatiotemporally dependent and that end-of-life (functional obsolescence) is an important metric that must be considered in evaluating sustainable material alternatives.

AlfaTech-Timmons brings an engineering philosophy of passive before active to all of its projects and works with the architect to achieve an integrated building design utilizing advanced building modeling to maximize natural resources available at the site. The integrated design approach is necessary in achieving high levels of sustainability, such as LEED-platinum certification and net zero energy, in a cost effective manner. AlfaTech-Timmons would like to present a story of two integrated building projects; Delta Product Headquarters and West Berkeley Library. Delta is a large state of the art commercial building utilizing the latest sustainable systems and West Berkeley Library is a small addition on a small budget. AT-T’s presentation will show how integrated design is the path for two very different buildings to sustainability and net zero energy. The Delta Products Headquarters in Fremont, California is a three-story, 2,323 square meter office and warehouse building with primary goals to showcase Delta Products innovation in a state of the art building blending the natural surroundings with sustainable building design. AT-T’s sustainable design focused on maximizing natural ventilation and daylighting, reducing water and energy consumption with a geothermal central plant, and utilizing radiant systems for primary space conditioning. AT-T conducted extensive CFD modeling to assist with sizing and locating windows around the building and their integration into a thermal tower ventilation strategy. The project also encompasses a PV system to balance energy consumption and achieve net zero energy. The West Berkeley Library aimed to achieve net zero energy on a small budget. The space is a single-story, high volume space, so AT-T’s design focused on thermal tower induced natural ventilation and a radiant floor. Natural daylighting and control was also essential to reducing energy consumption. Roof mounted PV balances energy consumption.

Cantilever retaining walls with pressure relief shelves are considered one special subset of retaining walls. The concept of providing pressure relief shelves towards the backfill side of a retaining wall reduces the total earth pressure on the wall, which results in reducing the thickness of the wall and ultimately to get an economic design. Limited solutions were presented for this type of walls in some research. This paper presents a set of finite element analyses for this type of wall using PLAXIS2D-AE. The reduction of the total active earth pressure due to provision of shelves has been studied. It was found that the shelves have a significant effect on the distribution of the earth pressure. It follows approximately the distribution of the Klein’s, 1964, solution. A parametric study is conducted to discuss the effect of the number of shelves, shelf rigidity and shelf position on the resulted lateral earth pressure distribution, top wall movement and the maximum acting bending moment on the wall. For high retaining walls and some repairing systems of constructed walls having stability problems, it is much recommended to provide the cantilever wall by one shelf at one third of the wall height from wall top or more shelves at different levels.

This paper presents the effect of the soil structure interaction on the modulus of subgrade reaction. Many of the structural designers represent the footings as a hinged support in the structural models, while the other designers represent the footings as a group of springs with spring coefficient K (kN/m). Designers assumed this modulus by different equations that are not considering the soil structure interaction. This paper showed that the soil structure interaction has a significant effect on the modulus of subgrade reaction. The subgrade reaction modulus is not uniformly distributed under the footings. Using the soil structure interaction in the calculation of the normal forces in columns results in a relatively change. Plane two-bay frames and two-bay by two-bay frames were studied using geotechnical and structural, 2D and 3D finite element programs. It is investigated for the plane frames that the normal force in the inner wall is decreased and it is increased for the outer walls. For the three dimensional frames, the inner column’s normal force is decreased and the edge column’s normal force is increased with the same normal force in the corner walls. For the complex structural systems, the distribution cannot be estimated, so that the use of geotechnical finite element programs can consider the soil, foundation, and superstructure interaction, which is highly recommended for the practical and researcher engineers.

In recent years, rapidly advancing new technologies and project delivery methods, such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Integrated Project Delivery (IPD), have had a significant impact on the building industry. As a result, practitioners and academia have realized that educating future engineers on these topics is a necessity. To adopt these, proper course and curriculum structures need to be developed and tested. The focus of many efforts to date have been on the first topic, courses. BIM in particular has proven to provide positive opportunities to advance education of buildings at the course level but when expanded upon to an entire curriculum; its effects have seen limited study and less commonly adopted throughout departmental programs. This paper will describe the efforts that the Department of Architectural Engineering (AE) at Penn State University has taken to implement different levels of BIM via collaboration, integration and technology in different courses throughout the program. The discussion will first focus on the overall structure of the program and how they interrelate to one another. Then the efforts within each of the four disciplines: Construction, Lighting/Electrical, Mechanical, and Structural Engineering will be examined more closely.

Critical to the education of engineers is the conceptual understanding of how discipline specific requirements integrate into the design of an engineered building. This conceptualization of systems and interdisciplinary interactions can be particularly challenging with buildings and infrastructure environments due to their size, complexity, and unique instances of systems. To enhance student engagement and comprehension of conceptual knowledge, a pilot study is currently underway looking at deploying Virtual Facility Dissection. The pilot study is currently implemented into an introductory (sophomore) building systems and materials course within the Architectural Engineering Department for a single topic, structural systems. Students enrolled here have not selected a discipline specific focus and are just starting to be exposed to building projects. The focus of this course is to introduce the students to different building materials and their function in typical systems in the built environment. In the delivery of the pilot, first the traditional method is taught, then three weeks later the same topic is re-visited but leveraging virtual dissection and interaction components. The results presented here are a summary of findings through two offerings of the pilot utilizing a steel superstructure case study of an ongoing construction project. Pre and post-test assessment were conducted. Here a comparison between the traditional method and the virtual facility dissection method can be examined. Student interest and efficacy in structural systems and construction of the structure were evaluated. Their efficacy increased regarding their ability to identify factors influencing structural design, to describe the schematic design process, and recognition of systems. Student interest in how systems were selected was also increased. Similarly, there was positive feedback about the scenario and strong interest from the students. The developed scenario had positive results in career interests, scenario engagement and their understanding of the design process.

Collaboration is a highly valued skill by professionals, yet the way it is most commonly introduced to students may emphasize only short-term impacts. Within a traditional interdisciplinary project, cooperative collaboration is often employed in which students of different disciplines are responsible for contributing their specialized knowledge and approaches to a project. There is some learning and general awareness achieved, but it is difficult to measure whether each student adequately understands all of the material in both the short- and long-terms. To better confirm that material is absorbed more fully for long-term impact, what Oklahoma State does in the Architectural Engineering Capstone Studio and throughout much of our curriculum is based on an expanded idea of the teaching technique of role-playing. The phrase that better describes our process is conversant immersion that emphasizes depth and breadth of the design process. In the conversant immersion process of the Capstone Studio, the students must not only design and analyze structure for a building but also they must individually do the architectural design of the building. In addition, they design and calculate elements of the mechanical system, lighting system, and envelope system. All of these systems are integrated, and decisions made in the design of one system usually impact another. Why have the students go through this effort? The faculty has surveyed professionals who hire our graduates and our alumni, and they report that this immersion makes graduates better collaborators in the long-term. This paper proposal will outline for educators in architecture and architectural engineering schools what is done during the Capstone Studio semester, reveal the project results of this process, and share the responses of professionals who have experienced the studio or employed OSU graduates.

Sustainability topics have experienced an increasing trend in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) education within the past few years. While the construction research is increasingly adopting sustainable design, green rating systems such as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) has become a center of interest for both the educators and the AEC students. Therefore, it is now a basic need to integrate LEED certification into the existing curriculum. At this stage, it is important to identify and analyze students' needs and expectations. This paper presents a senior level course, taught at Milwaukee School of Engineering (MSOE), which covers sustainable design and LEED concepts in order to prepare students for the LEED professional certification exams as well as for their future careers. The study conducts a survey to learn the perception of students about integrating the LEED concepts into the AEC curriculum in terms of benefits for the curriculum and construction industry, in addition to their expectations from a LEED-based course. The results showed how much students expected LEED concepts and professional certification exams to be integrated into the curriculum, and can serve as a guideline for sustainability educators to design a successful LEED-based course for undergraduate students.

Innovative facades transform buildings into landmarks regardless of location and are essential to the building’s architectural design and performance. Facade performance relies on an in-depth understanding of materials, the environment, and construction. This understanding (along with the ability to integrate the facade’s air, water, vapor, and thermal barriers with other enclosure elements and building systems) leads to efficient and sustainable projects. Lasting building performance not only relies on continuity of these barriers but also on an integrated approach to the design, analysis, fabrication, and construction of building enclosures. The design of facade details depends on a range of both technical and aesthetic factors, including the cladding types, glazing assembly profiles, structural attachment, fabrication methods, and installation sequencing. This requires that designers integrate the performance of the various facade components as well as the process from design conception to final construction. This paper will explain how field performance is achieved by designing for construction through the review of several case studies that focus on developing details for various facade conditions. The case studies will cover: (1) types of facade components that lead to difficult integrations; (2) proactive detailing and coordination methods that lead to better-performing and constructible facades; (3) technology, such as analysis and three-dimensional modeling, that assists with coordination, validating performance through analysis, and integrating design with fabrication and construction; (4) applying advanced enclosures techniques to all projects, regardless of size, complexity, or cost.

Building structures are dynamic and interact with their surroundings. They cannot ignore their surrounding environment. Consequently, exterior cladding systems must be detailed to accommodate building movements associated with these interactions. These movements include vertical deflections and lateral displacements from wind, seismic, and other forces. This paper will focus on the design of glazed curtain wall systems to accommodate structural displacement and is written for design professionals, cladding manufacturers, and contractors. The intent is to help project teams better understand how the building structure impacts the facade and to discuss the challenges cladding and glazing assemblies face when accommodating movement. This paper’s learning objectives are to: (1) provide an overview of glazed assemblies and design requirements; (2) understand how glazing assemblies interact with the structure, particularly at corners; (3) review design solutions for detailing curtain wall to accommodate structure movement, including the corners; (4) provide a method for validating curtain wall performance during structural movement.

Forensic investigations of slip, trip, and fall incidents on stairs often involve the study of the applicable codes and standards that were in effect at the time of construction, at the time of subsequent renovation, and at the time of the incident. Similarly, the rehabilitation of existing stairs following a fire, flood, or collapse, as well as the change in building use, or change in occupancy, may prompt a similar study. Navigating the various editions of the codes and design parameters can be challenging. This paper aids in that effort. This paper surveys the Building Codes of the City of New York, its adopted reference standards, other related industry standards, and is a guide for navigating the historical editions and identifying the various provisions pertaining to the design parameters, such as illumination, signs, headroom, slip resistance, guards, handrails, doors, landings, and treads and risers, etc.

This paper is a historical study which discusses four selected examples from the History of Collaborative Practice in the 20th century. The primary objective is to introduce new information to the Architectural Engineering profession, and to students who may seek positive models of interdisciplinary collaboration from history. A secondary objective is to expand the discourse in Architectural History to be inclusive of modes of practice. Examples studied are: Highpoint One by Berthold Lubetkin and Ove Arup (London, 1933–1935); David S. Ingalls Rink by Eero Saarinen and Fred Severud (New Haven, 1956–1958); One-Family Homes by Renzo Piano and Peter Rice (Milan, 1972–1974); and Downland Gridshell by Cullinan Studio and Buro Happold (Sussex, 1996–2002). A few key conclusions are developed. First, architects and engineers interested in collaborative practice generally possess a broader cultural or ‘philosophical’ view of the disciplines, often grounded in the classics. Second, long-term highly-integrative practices are created by charismatic individuals who value collaboration and then create a culture which persists and transcends the individual. And finally, good interdisciplinary collaborations seem to produce all kinds of formal outcomes; the notion of integration implies nothing about the ‘style’ or morphology of the building.

Many historic buildings from the late 19th and early 20th century have terra cotta roofs that are in need of repair or replacement, but their stewards find it difficult to mobilize financial resources for the full replacement of the terra cotta tiles. The application of fluid-applied waterproofing membranes on the exterior of the terra cotta tiles can extend the service life of historic terra cotta tiles and provide waterproofing protection for the building. Although these membranes are not “historic” material, if appropriately applied, they can provide a cost-effective and aesthetically appropriate alternate to full replacement of the terra cotta tiles. The selection of the appropriate fluid-applied waterproofing membrane requires a deliberate process that integrates both design and construction considerations. It includes background review to develop removal techniques (if an existing membrane is present) and options for the fluid-applied waterproofing membrane; a careful evaluation of the moisture content of the terra cotta; a field investigation that includes a series of mockups to understand the existing coating removal process and fluid-applied waterproofing membrane application process; and finally, careful installation and a continued review to ensure that all the lessons learned during the mockup (sample membrane installation) are implemented in the field. This paper presents practical advice to designers and builders to assist in the selection, design, and installation of fluid-applied waterproofing membranes on historic materials. Using a case study, the Luzerne County Courthouse in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, this paper shows the step by step process required to develop the design for the application of a fluid-applied waterproofing membrane over historic terra cotta.

The majority of the existing commercial building stock in the United States predates the adoption of contemporary energy codes and consequently has comparatively poor energy performance. Many of these buildings are of durable construction, continue to be functional, or have architectural significance, so their continued use represents an advantage over new construction. These buildings represent an enormous opportunity to improve energy efficiency and reduce operating costs. In addition to mechanical system and lighting upgrades (not discussed in this paper), the most significant energy efficiency improvements for existing buildings can be gained through improved building enclosure technology. The cost to execute major building enclosure system improvements is usually not justified based on a simple return-on-investment analysis alone. Therefore, recladding projects are commonly driven by one of the following: intolerable performance problems; a confluence of building systems at the end of their service life; the owner’s idealistic desire to invest in energy upgrades regardless of return, or an economic opportunity, such as an upgrade in building class or expansion of the enclosed building area. Effective building enclosure improvements require a project planning process that critically evaluates opportunities to improve building energy use, understands the limitations on upgrades in existing (often occupied) buildings, and understands the requirements and interplay of technical design decisions.

This paper investigates equivalent lateral force design provisions for determining the seismic base shear found in several international design standards. Six standards were chosen from around the globe to investigate their approach to seismic design and the effect of regional differences. Design standards were selected from Canada, USA, the EuroCode, Uganda, India, and China. The seismic base shear for a simple multistory regular structure subjected to a particular ground motion was determined per the provisions in these six design standards. In order to better understand the resulting differences between each standard, the seismic base shear calculations were broken into distinct common components (ground motion, soil interaction, seismic resisting system, and structure importance) and their individual value and resulting impact on the seismic base shear were compared. This paper is of interest to structural engineering faculty involved in seismic engineering research or in teaching seismic design. This paper is also of interest to design professionals involved in international projects. This paper is also of interest to code developers by providing a broader perspective on how other code developers from around the globe approach seismic design. Readers of this paper will take away a review of the equivalent lateral force procedure found in ASCE 7-10 for determining the seismic base shear and an understanding of how other international design provisions approach seismic design.

Tornadoes are natural disasters that can have devastating effects, such as loss of life and the ability to render many homeless as well as resulting in significant economic losses. Tornadoes present a low probability of occurrence but potentially high impact on structures. They are heavily influenced by location (i.e., “tornado alley”). Hospitals and other critical facilities must be kept in service or have loss of service minimized in order to provide shelter for immobile patients and care for survivors. This paper discusses the current, somewhat limited, building code requirements for the design of buildings in areas with a high risk of tornados and will focus on critical healthcare facilities that must remain functional during natural disasters. Some of the lessons learned from reviewing two healthcare facilities, one damaged by an EF-5 tornado and one damaged by an EF-1 tornado, will be presented. As with any type of multi-hazard engineering, reducing the risk and exposure to natural disasters are fundamental; however, it also comes with an economic cost that must be carefully weighed.

The architecture of a building characterizes its aerodynamic behavior, which drives the steady and fluctuating forces resulting from wind loading. This in turn defines the level of structural resistance required for cladding, components, and the main wind force resisting system (MWFRS) of a building or other structure. For tall buildings, the wind loads developed by the exterior geometry can contribute to unfavorable occupancy conditions, such as high accelerations due to across-wind response (i.e., vortex shedding). Much is known about the aerodynamics of ‘classic’ prismatic geometries (i.e., square, rectangular), and data for these types of shapes comprise the backbone of most wind design standards (i.e., ASCE 7). With a growing focus being placed on distinct, or ‘landmark’ buildings and structures, the bounds of architectural design are being pushed considerably, resulting in structures characterized by unique exterior geometry and equally unique aerodynamics. Distinctive shapes or features may result in unexpected wind pressure distributions, excessive vibration of components, or Aeolian noise. The emergence of versatile high-strength, but more flexible, building materials has contributed to the variety of architectural features observed on modern structures. The movement towards sustainability has led to features such as solar panels, green roofs or walls, and more energy-efficient curtain wall systems being integrated into many new buildings. Each of these aspects of modern and unique architecture have likely posed challenges to architectural and structural teams at some point in the design process, the wind tunnel testing component included. This paper provides a background on the development of wind loading provisions specified in design standards and codes, and discusses some of the situations encountered when assessing the wind loading and response of unique structures using the wind tunnel approach. A brief background on building aerodynamics and the wind tunnel testing procedure is provided. Approaches to assessing the wind loads and response of various architectural features, including parapets, spires and long-span roofs, are summarized. Additional considerations such as pedestrian level wind speeds, applications of sustainable design, and urban planning are briefly discussed.

Air rights projects have historically led to creative structural solutions since restrictions are imposed on the placement of vertical load resisting elements and their accompanying foundations. Good examples of this are buildings constructed over the Liverpool Train Station in London: Bishopsgate Exchange House uses a tied arch bridge concept to span the rail yard below and the Broadgate Tower introduces a creative diagonal bracing system that searches for terra firma between the tracks. In Salt Lake City, the current design for a 25-story office tower allows for the insertion of a performing arts facility at its base prohibiting any column above to pass through the facility below. Similarly, a new federal courthouse building is designed with no perimeter columns extending to foundations, eliminating elements that would otherwise be vulnerable to threat. In both cases, these unique site conditions have lead to creative approaches to design and strategies to optimize material use. For both the Salt Lake City and federal courthouse projects, the entire perimeters of the buildings are supported by a three dimensional steel roof hat truss system. The office building is designed as a core-only lateral system using non-prescriptive performance-based design. In addition, six large stainless steel bearings are used to manage loads at the top of the core wall system. For the courthouse building, six large shear wall cores are linked with unbonded braces and the cantilevered trusses are optimized in accordance with principles set forth in the early 1900’s by the mathematician John Michell. Construction sequence and load balancing are essential in the design of these structures.

Kuwaiti Government is bound by law to provide Government dwellings to each Kuwaiti male getting married within a maximum period of eight years. The demand for Kuwaiti Government dwellings increased by eight percent each year, which reached more than one hundred thousand in 2014. This paper establishes what problems currently exist with the design, materials, and construction used in contemporary Kuwaiti Government dwellings. The paper investigates social, psychological and health values and cultural meanings of dwellings and householders, as well as the occupant’s satisfactions, attitudes and behaviour from living in the Government dwellings. The sample selection of this paper is limited to Kuwaiti Government Dwellings; 70 husbands and 70 wives Kuwaiti citizen owners only living in Al-Nahda town in Kuwait. This paper is part of a doctoral research project conducted by the lead author at Cardiff Metropolitan University. The paper will be useful to academics, designers, contractors, environmental engineers, and building owners.