AEI 2011: Building Integration Solutions

The summer of 2005 marked the beginning of a landmark project at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. During this summer, principal investigators Dr. Ece Erdogmus, Dr. Michael Hoff, and Dr. Rhys Townsend began work on the restoration of the Temple of Antioch, located near the modern-day city of Gazipaşa, Turkey. Every summer since 2005 (with the exception of 2006 and 2010), Dr. Erdogmus, Dr. Hoff, and Clark University's Dr. Rhys Townsend have led teams of students in on-site fieldwork in Turkey. This project gives architectural engineering students the opportunity to work on a real world problem by applying their classroom knowledge and collaborating with students in other disciplines. The principal investigators of the project, themselves educators in engineering, archeology, and art history, specifically designed this project as an interdisciplinary internship opportunity housed within the environment of a study abroad program. Their efforts have led to the possible creation of a new discipline within architectural engineering, "archeological engineering."

With $3 million in funding from the National Science Foundation, the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District (GGBHTD) is creating a permanent outdoor exhibition at the south end (San Francisco side) of the Golden Gate Bridge. The exhibition will be opened in 2012. The exhibition will include a variety of models, displays, and interactive exhibits to provide visitors ways to learn about the engineering, construction and maintenance, aesthetics, and history of the Bridge, which is one of the most famous monuments in the world and is visited by 10 million people a year. The centerpiece of the exhibition is a large (90-foot-long), stainless steel scale model of the Bridge, revealing its structural features in detail. Locations on the model are keyed to satellite exhibits that surround this large "table of contents" model. An international conference is being planned in partnership with the American Public Works Association, which will include a special tour of the exhibition and information on how to mount successful exhibits that explain architecture and engineering to the public. The conference will be held June 20, 21, and 22, 2012 in San Francisco.

Retention of women in the architectural engineering workforce is important to the diversity and future success of the profession. This is an issue that is not only important to those involved in the formal education of architectural engineers but is also important to employers that invest significant resources in the recruitment and development of these professionals. However, little research has been done on specific disciplines of engineering, especially the field of architectural engineering, related to gender and retention in the workforce. This paper summarizes a research study consisting of a written survey mailed to all female graduates between the years 1990 and 2005 from Kansas State University's architectural engineering program. The data compiled from this research revealed the retention rate of these women in the architectural engineering workforce following graduation. In addition to establishing a retention rate the study also presents a strong correlation between attaining professional engineering licensure and retention in the architectural engineering workforce. Retention of women in the architectural engineering workforce is important to the diversity and future success of the profession. This is an issue that is not only important to those involved in the formal education of architectural engineers but is also important to employers that invest significant resources in the recruitment and development of these professionals. However, little research has been done on specific disciplines of engineering, especially the field of architectural engineering, related to gender and retention in the workforce.

Numerous organizations have undertaken the task of envisioning the education required to meet the engineering demands of the future. The ABET study EC2000, ASCE's Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge and Body of Knowledge 2 and the National Academy of Engineering have documented the need to change engineering education from its historical focus on technical content knowledge to include greater emphasis on professional issues and to integrate engineering practice into education. To this end teaching methods such as project-based learning, and the use of case studies are being explored to address these broader learning outcomes. Case studies in particular facilitate telling the stories of professional practice. This paper discusses the use of engineering case studies in design coursework with specific application to third year architectural engineering student learning. Introduction, application and discussion of several case studies are presented in the context of teaching building structural design. Along with the technical execution of system and member selection, computer analyzes and structural detailing that occur in these courses, broader concepts relating to professional roles and responsibilities, design team interplay, the design process, the construction process and professional practice ethics are investigated. The advantages of this altered approach to teaching engineering design are discussed.

University campuses are essentially small cities and can provide significant educational opportunities for research and students. In this paper, we discuss ongoing use of the Carnegie Mellon campus in Pittsburgh, PA for education using a recent set of over twenty projects as examples. First, campus facilities can provide data, problems and application opportunities for student projects. We describe several such projects, including a course integrating building energy sensing with modeling and several projects undertaken as part of an engineering course on Infrastructure Management. Second, campus facilities can provide opportunities for tours and observations to provide a realistic context for abstract concepts covered in engineering courses. We describe tours and problems used in several courses in this regard. Finally, campus facilities can provide practical internship opportunities for some students. In addition to providing educational opportunities, campus laboratory work can also help improve facilities management decisions and processes. To facilitate use of a campus as an educational laboratory, a co-operative partnership between faculty and facilities management personnel is necessary.

This paper explores the role of hand-drawing in Architectural Engineering (AE) education, given the increasing importance of Building Information Modeling (BIM) with its new techniques for representing and developing design ideas. Clearly BIM offers numerous advantages to AE students, and its prevalence in industry means that it should be a central component of AE education. But it is also a "disruptive technology" in the sense that its adoption prompts larger strategic questions—in this case, how to teach design and how to shape the curriculum. Specifically, this paper probes the interface between analog and digital techniques. Typically, conceptual design ideas are explored by hand-drawing—the proverbial `napkin sketch' or `back-of-the-envelope' diagram—while further development and documentation happens on the computer, leading to the final product. But should the process be so linear? How can AE programs more fully explore the complex interactions between brain, pencil, mouse and outcome? We conclude that students generally embrace digital modeling but have some difficulty incorporating hand-drawing into the design process, so it is beneficial to introduce some techniques. We also conclude that students should be encouraged to use hand-drawing throughout the design process, in parallel with modeling, rather than following a linear process of drawing first and modeling second.

This paper presents some hands-on Green Building exercises that have been developed and used successfully by beginning students. It discusses the value of this subject matter, and also examines the pedagogical underpinning for a hands-on approach. The intent is to make the case that architecture and engineering students need exposure to Green Building principles at an earlier level than is currently common, and that this exposure should be inductive and kinesthetic. A secondary intent is to prompt a wider discussion about which specific Green Building topics and skills are most important. We conclude with a suggestion that some consolidation and re-organization of existing resources is needed, as well as some consensus about the fundamentals that should be emphasized for beginning students.

The entry by the College of Architecture at Texas A&M University to the 2007 Solar Decathlon competition sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy was termed the "groHome". It was based on a design system of modular units with a limited set of components that could be customized and would allow for post-occupancy expansion of the structure. The assembly of components relied on the idea of a "snap-on" joint integral with the structural steel tube column termed the "groJoint." The joint also included utility openings through the column to allow integration within the structural framework for the electrical and mechanical services for the solar-powered home. The "groJoints" were intended to accommodate beam modules as well as "groWalls" that could possibly have electrical or mechanical services, such as a bathroom or kitchen component. This paper presents the evolution of the structural system integration solution for the student-lead, designed, and constructed project; including manufacturing, welding, re-design, construction, and the extent of engineering supervision.

Architectural design students commonly describe themselves as visual learners who dislike the application of non-geometrical math. They are resistant to the requirement they could possibly be responsible for any engineering design or analysis, and show marked resistance to team or group work as foreign to the studio culture; all of which provide challenges to successful recognition of the connection of the structural theory or behavior of systems and components to the application of those concepts through design, analysis, and planning. In an effort to attain that connection, students in introductory undergraduate and comprehensive graduate level courses in structural systems were exposed to visualization of physical assemblies, load tracing, and structural analysis through construction exercises, analytical exercises, case studies, and structural modeling exercises using analysis software. The varying success of the students through physical models and construction projects related to load investigation and appropriate application of structural models will be presented in this paper, particularly with respect to the major misapplication and incomplete conceptions of system assemblies, and in consideration of a curriculum revision that consolidated the topics of statics, mechanics of materials, analysis and structural design for the introductory course.

PPP in Ireland is crucial to the delivery of priority economic infrastructure projects under the National Development Plan (NDP) and to the provision of quality public services. The readiness of the PPP construction industry to implement sustainable design development principles is affected by various factors which, inter alia, include culture, political will, infrastructural support, regulations, capacity and capabilities, to mention but a few. The paper presents a thorough review of literature into the industry and the impact these sorts of factors have on sustainable design development of a PPP project for a bundle of educational buildings. It is argued that the industry needs to attain certain thresholds such as: appropriate knowledge and skills base, infrastructural capacity, and innovation culture for it to be in a meaningful position to make use of particular sustainable design principles to be implemented on PPP projects. The paper concludes that without the attainment of these thresholds, implementation of sustainable design principles in educational PPP projects will continue to be difficult to achieve.

Under-representation of women in engineering is of concern as the decreasing supply of qualified engineers continues to plague the nation's advancement. Understanding what factors influence choices of engineering disciplines has the potential for altering education to accommodate a more diverse student body that can be successful in engineering. There are seventeen accredited architectural engineering programs in the nation and they are very different. They vary greatly in terms of the emphasis of curriculum, the length of the degree, the degree of inclusion of architecture studios, and whether they are collocated in a department of civil engineering. Despite these differences, architectural engineering programs graduate on average 30% women which is far higher that the percentages of women in other engineering programs. This paper compares the percentage of women in architectural engineering programs to those in civil, mechanical and electrical engineering programs nationwide and attempts to explain the difference. A survey of women in the Cal Poly architectural engineering department was administered to discover why these women personally chose AE as a major, why they persist in the major, and why they think women are so largely represented in the major. The results represent a competitive advantage that architectural engineering programs have and are of great interest to the Architectural Engineering Institute.

The Architectural Engineering Department (ARCE) at California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly) is one of the few ABET accredited engineering programs in the United States that exists outside a college of engineering. Housed in the College of Architecture and Environmental Design (CAED), ARCE resides with the departments of Architecture (ARCH), Construction Management (CM), Landscape Architecture (LA), and City and Regional Planning (CRP). The college has a 60 year tradition of interdisciplinary collaboration at the lower division levels. In order to enhance the collaboration of disciplines at the upper division levels, the college has recently committed to providing an upper division interdisciplinary experience for every student in the form of an interdisciplinary team oriented, project based five unit studio laboratory. The challenges in creating and executing such an upper division interdisciplinary course are immense and fall into three major areas: institutional, logistical and pedagogical. Institutional issues include support from the university and multiple department heads. Logistical issues range from finding open time within the multiple departments to offer the course to the seemingly mundane tasks of ensuring all students are in the correct location at the correct time. Pedagogically, the course needs a unified and integrated approach that must be agreed to and implemented by a team of professors. Traditionally professors work as individuals and team teaching of this magnitude is a paradigm shift that requires a significant time and mental commitment. This paper addresses these three challenge areas: institutional, logistical and pedagogical. It discusses the specific issues, both good and bad, associated with this course and how they were addressed.

Seventeen architectural engineering (AE) programs are ABET-accredited in the US. To gain accreditation, a program must meet general criteria common to every engineering program and specific criteria that are unique to the type of program. The Architectural Engineering Institute (AEI) Academic Council recently rewrote and approved the program criteria for all accredited AE programs. This paper examines the new criteria and reports on the issues and decisions that were made in their development. Comparisons are made with the existing AE program criteria and the new civil engineering program criteria. The issues include the recognized AE sub-disciplines, the minimum degree of attainment in each sub-discipline, the role of architecture, the role of design, the need for flexibility to preserve the uniqueness of the various programs, and the minimum requirements for math, science and engineering fundamentals.

A building's exterior walls, the metaphorical book covers, are undergoing rapid reevaluation based on availability of improved manufactured materials, design and monitoring systems that evaluate performance. These valuable tools reduce wall energy transmission and eliminate moisture and water transmission, key in health and safety concerns surrounding mold. Recent construction technological advances and monitoring have altered how buildings are designed and how they perform. Technology ranging from Building Information Modeling (BIM), energy modeling software and improved building systems monitoring ensures meeting intended building use and understanding projected and actual system performance goals. By utilizing these technologies, complex exterior skins can be shaped, molded and customized. Tried and true enclosure systems are receiving increased recognition as they meet complex design challenges and requirements—such as the rainscreen enclosure system.

Three-coat stucco (Portland cement plaster) has been successfully used as an exterior finish and weather barrier on residential structures for over a hundred years. Residential stucco is considered a highly durable material with typical lifespans in the range of 50 to 75 years. The authors have noted that in the last 20 years three-coat stucco has been increasingly used on commercial building, including mid-rise and high rise buildings. This trend may be related to the competitive aspects of stucco as an exterior finish as well as the reluctance of some architects to design with EIFS (synthetic stucco). However the performance of the stucco on commercial buildings has been, in the author's experience, rather mixed. The authors have investigated a number of commercial buildings where significant water intrusion problems have been related to the design and application of the stucco system. This paper presents a summary of problems we have observed with stucco performance on commercial buildings and explores the reasons for the difference in performance between residential and commercial stucco applications. We also make suggestions for improved stucco performance on commercial buildings.

Over the last two decades, energy codes have ratcheted down the allowable energy transmission through glazing systems. Architects, in many cases, had little choice but to specify glazing with reduced area or reduced visible light transmission (VLT) in order to comply with the changing codes. In the past few years the trend toward these reductions has reversed. The latest generations of solar-control glass coatings allow ever more visible light transmission, while maintaining solar heat gain coefficients (SHGC) that meet energy code requirements. At the same time, energy codes and green building guidelines have increasingly promoted daylighting as a means to reduce energy use by artificial lighting. The availability of these highly transparent products, combined with the greater emphasis on daylighting, has resulted in designers specifying large expanses of highly transparent glazing. Such a design strategy, while energy code-compliant, must be approached with caution. From a visual standpoint, occupant complaints of excessive visual brightness, veiling reflections, and glare can become a serious issue if an overabundance of daylight is not properly managed. Daylight management strategies include modifications to the glazing system, interior shading devices, room layout and material changes, and even modifications to the glass product itself. From a thermal comfort standpoint, as the percentage of glass increases and approaches 100 percent, the percentage of dissatisfied or uncomfortable occupants increases due to asymmetrical thermal radiation, drafts, vertical air difference, and hot or cold floors. Comfort strategies to offset the percentage of glass include the addition of perimeter heat, constant supply air flow and the careful placement and selection of supply diffusers.

A new type of wall system primarily for use in light-frame construction has recently been developed at Penn State University to allow for maximum daylighting as well as use of photovoltaic (PV) to generate electricity. One option of the proposed wall system employs structural steel tubing to form the gravity load bearing frame and polycarbonate sheets to perform the sheathing function. The exterior skin of the wall consists of a glazing system including aluminum framing and glass panes that incorporate PV cells. Proof of the concept structural tests are presented to show the gravity load carrying capacity of the steel framing and in-plane lateral load carrying capacity of the polycarbonate sheathing. The paper briefly explains the design of the wall system and provides a summary of the structural test results. The paper further compares the performance of the structural system of the wall with that of a conventional wood-frame system.

Results of cyclic racking tests on EN-WALL 7250 unitized curtain wall system mockups are presented. Mockups had overall dimensions of 180 in. wide by 156 in. high and were comprised of nine glass panels adhered to aluminum framing with 3M^TMVHB^TM structural glazing tape structural seals and structural sealant weatherseals. Racking tests followed the AAMA 501.6 protocol to characterize the performance of the system. Tests were carried out in a step-wise manner in order to stop the test after each drift increment to inspect the mockup for any damage. A complete description of the unitized system design is presented along with test observations

The potential seismic performance of three storefront framing systems was evaluated. Racking tests were performed on the Oldcastle BuildingEnvelope^TM FG-3000, Series 3000 Thermal MultiPlane (3000-TMP), and FG-2000 storefront systems. Planar mockups and mockups with a reentrant corner detail were tested for each storefront system. Testing followed a modified AAMA 501.6 dynamic racking protocol to allow detailed observations of damage progression in the mockups. Mockup design, test setup, and loading protocol details along with test results and observations from the racking tests are presented.

Cathedral Hill Hospital (the California Pacific Medical Center) is a 15-story building to be constructed in Downtown San Francisco. The curtain wall system for this building is primarily of unitized design employing a four-sided structural sealant glazing (SSG) system. To ensure satisfactory seismic performance of the curtain wall system for this project, dynamic racking tests were carried out according to AAMA 501.6 procedure on curtain wall mockups constructed with vertical and horizontal mullions that had section properties similar to the ones that will ultimately be used on the building. Although the curtain wall system designed for this building is unitized, the preliminary tests reported in this paper were carried out on mockups that were constructed as stick-built. The objective of the preliminary tests was to evaluate the performance of structural sealants as well as the glass when the mockup is racked in a worst case scenario. The building and curtain wall design are explained and the results of racking tests presented.

Proposed analytical expressions for the load increase factor (LIF) and dynamic increase factor (DIF) are compared with the empirical formulae recommended in the Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) guidelines UFC 4-023-03 in this study. Static and incremental dynamic analyses are carried out for two moment-resisting frames under sudden column loss. The LIF and DIF of the column-removed frames are estimated from their load-displacement envelopes. They are used to evaluate the adequacy of the analytical LIF and DIF expressions in comparison with the empirical formulae. The study results indicate that the proposed analytical expressions may be an alternative in estimating the LIF and DIF for progressive collapse analysis.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss current blast resistant design technology and demonstrate how it has been used in the protection of structures against future terrorist attacks. The paper will discuss historical and current approaches used to determine structural response to blast loading. The paper will demonstrate the impact of advanced finite element methods in the design of structures to resist blast loading with emphasis on economical construction and better understanding of complex response modes. Discussion of the critical need for test validation of advanced methods will be included.

Organic and natural solutions have great value as they have, over time, been shaped by nature. Incorporating these organic and natural solutions in building design offers the challenge to quantify these solutions and to derive systems that are adaptable, constructible and cost effective. Adaptations and mathematical derivations that use nature's mechanics in structural design have led to innovations in structural systems. These organically-inspired structural systems typically exhibit interesting aesthetic qualities which are not necessarily intuitive. Two design examples are explored which incorporate nature's mechanics. First, geometric properties of bamboo, as they relate to structural shape, material placement and efficiency, are examined and applied to the China World Trade Center (CWTC) Tower Competition. Second, the logarithmic spiral—found in forms ranging from all the way from shells, seeds, and plants to spider webs, hurricanes, and galaxies—was interpreted and applied to the ultra-tall Transbay Transit Tower Competition, scientifically mimicking natural force flows of a cantilevered structure to its foundation.

Tall buildings are built with an abundant amount of resources because of their enormous scale. This paper presents sustainable structural engineering strategies for tall buildings, which will lead to the construction of tall buildings with less amount of structural material to meet design requirements. Selecting a particular structural system for tall building design involves many complex factors such as availability of resources, architectural aesthetics, spatial organizations and structural efficiency. Among these various factors, this study mainly investigates lateral stiffness-based structural efficiency of today's prevalent structural systems for tall buildings, such as diagrids, braced tubes and outrigger systems. Design optimization strategies for important structural geometric configurations are studied. Further, optimal stiffness distribution between the building core and perimeter structure is discussed. Through the most appropriate system selection and design optimization, more sustainable built environments can be accomplished.

Early design of tall buildings culminated with the emergence of the International Style, which produced many Miesian towers all over the world for decades. Today, however, as is true of other building types, multiple design directions are prevalent for tall buildings. This contemporary design trend has produced various building forms, such as twisted, tilted, and free forms, as are the cases with the Chicago Spire in Chicago, Signature Tower in Dubai and Phare Tower in Paris, respectively. This paper presents performance-based structural engineering options for various complex-shaped tall buildings. For each complex form category, tall buildings are designed with various contemporary structural systems, and the structural efficiency of each system, in conjunction with the building form, is studied. Parametric structural models are used for this study to investigate the impacts of the variation of important geometric configurations of complex-shaped tall buildings.

In 2001, the Applied Technology Council (ATC) initiated the ATC-58 Project under contract to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Under this project, ATC is developing next-generation performance-based seismic design criteria for new and existing buildings that will be published as FEMA P-58. Unlike present-generation performance-based design criteria, which characterize structural and nonstructural performance in terms of standardized damage states, the P-58 criteria characterize structural performance in terms of the consequences of earthquake damage including: casualties; repair and reconstruction costs, expressed both in monetary and energy/carbon expenditures; and occupancy interruption time. The performance of nonstructural building components including architectural, electrical and mechanical components and systems is integrally considered with that of the structure. Following a methodology originally developed by the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, the P-58 procedures revolve around a building performance model that includes fragility and consequence functions for each of the damageable components and systems of significance. Monte Carlo simulation procedures are used to assess potential losses for: individual earthquake shaking intensities; scenario earthquake events, considering uncertainty in ground motion intensity; and, over a period of time, considering uncertainty in the magnitude and distances of scenario events that will occur. Project completion is scheduled for late 2011.

Over the past few years, the authors have performed forced vibration testing on a variety of low-rise building structures. In this paper, the procedure to experimentally determine the modal parameters (natural frequency, mode shape, and damping) of building structures through forced vibration testing is described. In addition, a comparison of the experimental results to computational predictions of the building response is made to highlight the accuracy of the computational modeling. The experimental setup consists of a small linear shaking device that gently (below human perception) vibrates the building structure and highly sensitive (but inexpensive) hardware and software to collect and process the results. Great care must be taken to properly position the equipment, filter out the extraneous data, and process and interpret the data. Interpretation of the data is complicated by the excitation of all modes when the building is subject to forced vibrations. A procedure for determining the mode shapes directly from the forced vibration testing is presented and compared to the experimental results.

The non residential stock is highly variable in building size, construction and activities. Conversely to residential buildings, institutional buildings have a huge diversity of energy end uses and installed capacities. University campuses belong to the latter group and are among the major education facilities. Their energy use is comparable to that of a medium sized town. This paper presents an overview of the assessment of the characteristics, current energy consumption and the potential for energy conservation in Texas A&M University campus at Kingsville (TAMUK). Though some of the general energy conservation measures outlined in this paper are quite technical in nature a large number can be classified as socio-technical and envisage educating and engaging students (the largest population group on campus) in energy and environmental issues. This being a program expected to span for several years the cumulative impact of implementing these energy conservation measures will only be felt close to the end of the project. The major goal is thus using the information collected along the life span of this project to identify the determinants of energy use in a small university campus and gain an improved scientific understanding of the broad patterns of energy flows. The information gathered is of the foremost value to other institutions of higher education sharing similar characteristics and environmental concerns.

The studied educational building is a three story building with a total floor area of 78,000 square feet. It consists of classrooms, computer and research laboratories, and faculty offices. The lighting system uses T8 fluorescent light bulbs with manual switches. The heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system is equipped with four single duct variable air volume (VAV) air handling units (AHU). A series of test conducted on the building reveals the enormous energy savings through the use of energy efficient methods. These methods were identified and savings were measured or estimated for the electrical and HVAC systems. The projected annual saving was calculated between $36,309 and $42,809. This paper presents the detailed methodology used in identifying these energy efficient methods.

Air-to-air variable refrigerant flow, or VRF, is a promising technology that could be used widely in commercial construction in the United States. This system is extremely flexible and can serve an unlimited number of zones in a building should piping lengths permit. In proper applications, the efficiencies of these systems are much higher than conventional systems used by many designers today. Understanding when to select a VRF system for a building is paramount to realizing the full potential of the system. A misapplied system, no matter how well designed, will not be able to perform at its full capability. After a designer has ensured that VRF is the correct system for a building, design can begin. Throughout the design process, the designer should refer to manufacturer data for unit capacities, allowable pipe lengths, pipe diameters, and DDC control information. Once design is completed, the installation of the system can proceed. Installation of the system is relatively easy, but contractors must familiarize themselves with the specific installation requirements of each manufacturer. All factors considered, VRF will likely gain popularity as designers learn more about the system.

Cement production generates about 5 percent of global manmade carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions (ca. 1 ton of CO₂ per ton of cement made) and is the second-largest industrial process-related source of CO₂ emissions in the United States. In response to environmental concerns related to global warming, the cement and concrete industry has been gradually shifting towards more sustainable materials and technologies. The primary objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the main directions of sustainable concrete technology; namely, reduction of the CO₂ footprint of concrete materials, adaptation of performance-based specifications, and utilization of high-performance concrete. Specific methods of CO₂ reduction in concrete, some of which are still under development, include supplementary cementitious materials, limestone filler, binder content reduction through optimization of aggregate gradation, "low CO₂" cements, and cement-free binders (geopolymer concrete). In view of emerging environment-conscious policies and regulatory changes gradually being adopted by owners and specifiers, the concrete construction industry is facing significant challenges.

Considering carbon emissions and world-wide climate change, the design of environmentally responsible structures is paramount. Structures located in regions of high seismic risk are particularly important since they are likely to experience seismic damage during their service life. The life-cycle performance and the carbon footprint of these structures are sensitive to their structural system with outcomes that are significantly more favorable when enhanced systems are used. Historically, the effects of buildings on the changing environment were evaluated based on mechanical, electrical, and plumbing building system energy use related to daily operations. Structures themselves are typically given little or no consideration for environmental effects; yet, in fact, they contribute significantly to the effects of climate change. Structures contribute to carbon emissions not only when they are built, but also over their service life, especially if they are located in regions of high seismic risk. The carbon footprint associated with the damage, repair, and partial reconstruction—or in some cases the full demolition and reconstruction—have considerable effects on the environment. Structures must not only be evaluated based on their initial cost, constructability, and material availability; they also must be evaluated based on their long-term environmental effects. A carbon footprint analysis tool that considers a comprehensive evaluation of structural systems—both prescriptive and enhanced—is presented. The analysis tool is intended to rapidly and accurately quantify the air-polluting emissions associated with the structure. Using a combination of publicly available and privately developed information, the analysis tool assesses all emissions associated with all components of a building's structural system, employing a complete life cycle assessment of the structural components, incorporating probable seismic loss and repair costs that are based on the local site seismicity and the fragility of the structural system. The tool analyzes the emissions associated with both new and existing structures in addition to performing life-cycle, loss/damage, and cost-benefit analyses.

It has been difficult using a luminance meter for lighting professionals to accurately measure the non-uniform luminance of artificial light sources. The emerging HDR photography techniques for luminance acquisition may overcome limitations of the conventional method. This pilot study looked into the quality of HDR images generated under nine types of artificial light sources, including incandescent, tungsten halogen, fluorescent T8, CFL, mercury, MH, HPS, LPS, and LED, for measuring their own luminous surfaces. After comparing field measured luminance data using Minolta LS-100 with those retrieved from the nine HDR images, error percents were fount 29.4% +/– 28.4% if averaging all pixels brighter than 500 cd/m², or 29.5% +/– 33.5% if manually retrieved using the provided square selection tool in Photosphere. Yet error percents were found much smaller as of 1.5% +/– 1.2% for luminance mapping the uniform white patch of Macbeth color checker. Thus, HDR images may be used for luminance measurement of light sources with enhanced accuracy.

The Architectural Engineering Department at the University of Wyoming (UW) is continually exploring new teaching methods related to building sciences and interdisciplinary design (integrated design). A recent shift to a modeling based project format in both the design and analysis courses has been a disruptive and somewhat radical mission. Parallel with this shift towards model-based learning is an effort to focus more on existing building renovation and reuse. These changes aim to connect building prediction with building performance evaluation for a comprehensive and sustainable building design education. The intent of this paper is to summarize the progress of our recent efforts to develop integrated design projects, leading up to the creation of a multidisciplinary design studio with a focus on building performance and existing building renovation. Our early conclusion is that the educator's toolkit is expanded and improved by the incorporation of both predictive (forward) modeling and existing building analysis, particularly when both are incorporated into a building renovation studio project with a multidisciplinary design team.

With its significant strength and low weight, wood has been a versatile building material for centuries; however, wood-framing — like many other structural materials — is negatively influenced by a multitude of factors, and as a result, wood-framing in older structures often exhibits distress. Distress in wood structures can often be traced to underestimation of environmental loads such as snow, wind, or rain; decay due to exposure to moisture, fungal attack, or insect infestation; the presence of eccentric loads on connections that were not designed for eccentricity; structural overload caused by inappropriate addition of dead loads; and overestimation of allowable stresses. Also due to the wide variability in the physical properties of wood and due to the large number of repetitive members in a typical wood-framed structure, the laws of probability dictate that a few members may well experience distress over the life of a given structure. Generally, however, although one or several members in many types of wood-framed structures may become damaged, collapse of part or all of the structure remains unlikely due to the repetitive nature of the framing, its relatively light weight, and/or the inherent redundancy of these structures. Consequently, these structures often do not pose a significant life safety hazard even if they do not meet current code requirements; however, a lack of understanding on the part of building owners, building officials, or even engineers can result in overreaction regarding the significance of distress that may occur. This paper sets forth a much needed philosophy for evaluating older wood-framed structures in light of the facts that outright collapses are rare and that the significant redundancy in most of these structures generally provides considerable warning before structural damage becomes life-threatening.

Structural glued laminated structural members (glu-lams or glulams) are one of the most versatile engineered wood products available to the designer. Beams and columns can be built to almost any depth and size, can be arched and cambered, can be specified with a high quality architectural finish that can add to the aesthetic appearance of the structure if left exposed, and have an inherent fire-resistance. However, like all engineering materials, glu-lams have some limitations, and when those limitations are exceeded, glu-lams can become distressed in a number of unique ways. Through a series of case studies, this paper presents a number of distress and failure mechanisms in glu-lams that have been observed by the authors, based on many years of evaluating existing glu-lam members.

To ensure rapid recovery after a major earthquake, local communities will need engineering resources to provide efficient assessment and repair of damage to wood-frame structures. Motivated by inconsistencies in the earthquake damage assessment process following the 1994 Northridge earthquake, and in an effort to substantially improve our profession's response to the next major earthquake, the Earthquake Damage Assessment and Repair project was initiated under the auspices of the Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering (CUREE) to conduct research and develop guidelines for the assessment and repair of earthquake damage in wood-frame construction. One result of this project was the publication of General Guidelines for the Assessment and Repair of Earthquake Damage in Residential Woodframe Buildings. The intent of this paper is to provide an overview of this publication and how it can be used by architects and engineers to more effectively and efficiently evaluate the nature and extent of earthquake damage to residential wood-frame structures, and to identify the most appropriate repairs.

While growing interest in buildings that are better for the environment, healthier for occupants and more energy efficient has helped drive the popularity of green building rating systems, concerns over climate change have increased the sense of urgency and expanded the focus to include the carbon impact of buildings. Although operating energy—which is most often associated with climate change—is largely outside the scope of the structural engineer, he or she can positively influence a project's carbon footprint through the choice of structural materials. This paper will provide an overview of wood as a green building material and, in particular, its potential related to climate change mitigation. It will examine the role of sustainably managed forests and wood products in the absorption and storage of carbon, and in reducing atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases. Finally, it will highlight the increasing use of life cycle assessment (LCA), which offers an objective and consistent way to measure the environmental impacts of building materials from extraction/harvest through disposal or re-use, and demonstrate how wood compares to structural materials such as steel and concrete.

The Cathedral of Christ the Light serves as the Diocese of Oakland's new multi-use facility replacing the historic St. Francis de Sales Cathedral damaged in the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. Set on a prominent, two-block site overlooking Oakland's Lake Merritt, the 1,350-seat Cathedral is the centerpiece of a 224,000-square-foot complex with a complement of facilities that include a mausoleum, a conference center, administrative offices, bishop and clergy residences, a bookstore, a café, and community-serving ministries. A landscaped public plaza, accessible from all directions, firmly links the center with the city's commercial downtown and surrounding neighborhoods. The geometry of the Cathedral is derived from Vesica Pisces motif and concepts using intersecting spheres to create a symbolic form. The Cathedral incorporates a highly innovative use of modest materials including glued-laminated timber, architecturally exposed self-consolidating reinforced concrete, high strength steel, aluminum and glass to provide lightness and luminosity in an efficient structural form designed to endure centuries.

The recent surge of construction in China has seen many exciting and innovative structures built. Architects, engineers and builders from all over the world have joined their counterparts in China to participate in what is arguably one of the most significant bursts of creative endeavor in the history of building. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP has been fortunate since the early 1990s to have had the opportunity to be part of this phenomenon. Transparent and lightweight enclosures of public spaces in four recently completed projects in Beijing, China, are described. Each enclosure includes façade and / or roof elements that uniquely respond to specific design issues. The four projects highlight the particular ways in which innovative structural engineering concepts have been used to realize the aspirations of the architects making these atria and pavilions special places.

This Case Study presents the design and construction of a new high performance building for the East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD). The 5,600 square foot commercial building with offices, open cubicles, conference/meeting rooms, and locker/shower rooms will serve 22 ranger staff that work in the Mokelumne River Watershed in the Sierra Nevada foothills approximately 30 miles northeast of Stockton, California. The building is unique in that the designers included several sustainable and high performance features by employing a combination of "low technology" methods using design strategies from pre-modern historical practices with "high technology" analyses and controls. The sustainable features include water saving systems (rainwater collection, gray-water irrigation); low energy HVAC systems (radiant floors, natural ventilation, earth tubes, stack effect); and energy generation (PV, future wind turbine). The project goal was to achieve "net zero" annual energy use. Furthermore, the building was designed for modular construction to minimize construction waste and provide a cost-effective building solution.

Structural fire engineering (SFE) is a growing field of performance-based design where the required level of fire resistance, amount and location of fire protection material ("fire proofing") and structural detailing can be specifically tailored based on the response of the actual structure under realistic fire scenarios. While current practice in the United States is primarily prescriptive in nature, structural fire engineering is finding increased application as modern building design is becoming more complex and our understanding and ability to assess the response of structures in fire has increased significantly over the past 20 years. This paper presents a case study in the U.S. where several performance based structural fire engineering analyses were conducted. The case study demonstrates how structural fire engineering, using either simple or advanced forms of analysis, can bring value in a design framework. Specifically, the SFE analyses allowed for cost effective yet intrinsically more robust designs to be achieved in the commercial domain while, at the same time, allowed for the unique architectural features to be realized. The added values may not have been identified or possible in a traditional, prescriptive approach.

With $4 million in National Science Foundation funding, a five-year research project is currently testing and analyzing the seismic performance of nonstructural components with the aim of developing improved construction systems. The nonstructural components within the scope of the project are ceilings, piping (in particular fire sprinkler piping), and partitions. These three kinds of nonstructural components, although designed and constructed as separate processes by different design professionals and installed by different contractors, physically interact as a single system in an earthquake. This unplanned interaction has proven to be a cause of damage in past earthquakes. Because nonstructural components represent about three-quarters of the construction cost of a typical building, the vulnerability of nonstructural systems has accounted for the majority of the cost of damage in recent US earthquakes. The project website, http://www.nees-nonstructural.org/, provides further information.

Damage to nonstructural components in earthquakes resulted in billions of dollars of losses during 2010. Nonstructural components include architectural components; mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) components; and furniture, fixtures, equipment and contents, the integrity of which is very important to the functionality of buildings after an earthquake. Following the earthquake in Chile in 2010, damage to nonstructural components led to the closure of many facilities, including airports, hospitals, clinics, and industrial facilities. In some cases, it took many months to restore these facilities to full functionality. Post-earthquake reconnaissance in Chile included a detailed study of hospital performance with a focus on the performance of nonstructural components and the impact of nonstructural damage on hospital operations. In Haiti, structural damage was widespread after the 2010 earthquake and largely overshadowed any reports of nonstructural damage, but it is important to note that much of the structural damage was caused by the unintended interaction between rigid nonstructural infill walls and light reinforced concrete frames. The paper also highlights lessons learned for US design practice.

In many strong earthquakes that have struck the United States in the last century the damage to the nonstructural building components has exceeded the cost of structural damage in most affected buildings. For most modern buildings explicitly designed for seismic loads, the damage has been largely limited to nonstructural components. Failures in most nonstructural components pose hazards to occupants. Furthermore, the damage to nonstructural components in several cases has resulted in loss of functionality of the building. For essential facilities, such as hospitals, loss of functionality even for a short period of time may be critical. Even if the structural components of the building can achieve immediate-occupancy-performance during a seismic event, equipment failure can lower the performance level of the entire building system. This paper will discuss lessons learned from the performance of nonstructural components and systems from previous earthquakes and the evolution of the design philosophy and design provisions in recent building codes for such components and systems. The paper will also discuss the recent research and code development efforts in the last decade aimed in improving the performance of nonstructural components and harmonize it to the appropriate structural performance levels based on occupancy category. The paper will also discuss why it is necessary to break away from the traditional "black box" concept. Since the 2000 IBC, nonstructural components that are determined to have a safety-critical function have had to satisfy special requirements. Safety-critical components are required to be specified as designated seismic systems and, certified by the manufacturer to function following design earthquake level motions. This certification is required to be based on sophisticated dynamic analysis, empirical methods or shake table testing. The paper will discuss the application and relative merits of these procedures as they relate to building codes. The direct application of these procedures to Performance Based Seismic Engineering will also be discussed.

This paper introduces a new web-based earthquake design aid intended to assist design professionals to comply with building code requirements and to satisfy project-specific performance objectives for protection of nonstructural components. This web-based product FEMA E-74, Reducing the Risks of Nonstructural Damage: A Practical Guide (FEMA 2010), was developed by the Applied Technology Council under contract to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). For commercial construction, such as office buildings, hotels and hospitals, nonstructural components and contents typically represent 80–90% of the capital investment at risk during an earthquake, and experience suggests that the majority of losses in future U.S. earthquakes will be the result of damage to nonstructural components and contents. Reducing the Risks of Nonstructural Damage: A Practical Guide (FEMA E-74) explains the sources of nonstructural damage in simple terms and provides extensive visual information in the form of photos of nonstructural components damaged in earthquakes and photos of mitigation efforts. It also includes illustrated mitigation examples for over 70 nonstructural items including architectural components; mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) components; and furniture, fixtures, equipment and contents. The web-based document also includes additional tools, such as a spreadsheet template for managing design responsibility for seismic protection of nonstructural components and a comprehensive sample specification.

A simplified formulation is presented for determining the maximum horizontal acceleration response of rigid floors in multistory structures subjected to strong ground motions. The proposed formulation may be easily incorporated into the framework of modern seismic design provisions for the design of nonstructural components. The method takes into account the nonlinearity of the primary structure. Floor acceleration data obtained from 74 earthquake simulations performed on 30 small-scale multistory reinforced concrete test structures are used to develop the proposed formulation for floor acceleration maxima. The simulations considered were limited to roof displacements between 0.5% and 2.5% of the structure height, where the test structures experienced extensive cracking and flexural yielding without losing structural integrity. This level of deformation is within the range of response expected in full-scale multistory buildings during strong seismic events. For the simulations considered, the mean for the ratios of measured-to-calculated floor accelerations is 0.85 with a coefficient of variation of 0.30, of sufficient accuracy considering the simplicity involved in the calculation and the uncertainty associated with earthquake ground motions. The results are consistent for various structural types and for a wide range of base motions.

The lack of proper categorization of performance indicators hampers frequent and widespread use of performance metrics by the facility management industry. The purpose of this paper is to identify Key Performance Indicators (KPI's) and categorize them into specific aspects of facility performance measurement. A qualitative approach, based on the literature, is adopted, which identified KPI's based on a literature search. The KPI's were, then, arranged into three major categories, based on their purpose and content: financial, physical, and functional. This categorization may offer a more practical use by facility management practitioners. Examples of the indicators identified, with their description, units of measurement, and literature sources are presented. Future research should focus on further analysis of KPI's in order to generate a more concise list of indicators that exhibit wide applicability and valid categorization.

Buildings generally have four phases: design, construction, operation (occupancy) and deconstruction. The design and the construction phases are fairly well researched by architectural engineering researchers, who research the topics of mechanical, electrical, lighting, structural systems and construction management. In general, the operational phase of buildings and facility management has received less attention by the research community. Although energy management has received attention from researchers (Claridge, Liu et al. 1996; Michaels 2003; Mathew, Sartor et al. 2004; ASHRAE 2007), other operational topics, such as maintenance management and skills needed by building control technicians are two topics that are under researched (Ehrlich et al 2010; Arditi and Nawakorawit 1999). This paper will explore why the operational phase of buildings has historically received less attention by the research community, followed by a discussion of why research about the operational phase of existing buildings is needed and appropriate research methods to use, with an emphasis on the use of multimethodology. The paper will conclude with a discussion of how multimethodology is being used for a current facility management research project: the development of a decision support system tool to improve building operating decisions.

Selecting a project delivery system is widely understood to be part of the project definition phase. That selection is made from a finite set of alternative contract and phase structures; e.g., design-bid-build or design-build. In this paper, we explore two alternatives to the received wisdom; namely, 1) project delivery systems are products of design, not simple selection, and 2) for best outcomes, project delivery systems are designed to align interests, integrate specialists organizationally, and to be executed using a Management-By-Means philosophy. We argue that these features of project delivery systems are the more needed as projects become more complex and uncertain. We further explore the limits of design on complex, uncertain projects, and the need for in-process management that is nimble and opportunistic. Case studies are advanced in explanation and as evidence for our claims.

This paper presents a framework of a decision support system for construction hazard identification and analysis which is a core process of design and planning for safety (DPfS). The paper aims to: (1) review the shortcomings of current hazard identification and analysis tools and processes; and (2) proposes an alternative hazard identification and analysis approach. Contribution of the outputs of phase one and two on the decision to select between the available response options or even proposing a creative response is very limited and negligible. In other words, the response to hazard is being made in the designer's / hazard analyst's mind implicitly without any explicit structure or data transmitted from phase 1 and 2.To address this problem, this research examines literature on how hazard data is collected in phase 1, and how it is analyzed in phase 2. Based on the reviewed literature, the paper presents a structure to collect context specific and process relevant data for phase 1 and proposes an analysis process to enhance phase 2 in order to help the designer and hazard analyst to select the most appropriate response to hazard. The paper concludes with a conceptual framework for hazard analysis that involves the concepts of "impacting factors" of each hazard type and defining a "risk profile" (RP) and "risk filter" (RF) for each "available response", and comparing "RP and RF of the available responses" with "profile of the hazard source". This research contributes to the hazard analysis literature for design and planning for safety (DPfS).

Modular construction is defined as structure units fabricated in a manufacturing plant away from the jobsite. In the building industry, prefabricated modules are normally completed with mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) installed. Prior to the use of Building Information Modeling (BIM) software technology, the coordination of MEP systems had created major challenges for complex buildings and industrial plants and limited the potential for pre-fabrication in modular construction projects. The prefabrication coordination process has historically involved representatives from each all trades working together to locate equipment and route connecting elements for each system. The use of BIM software technology has facilitated the prefabrication coordination process and has increased the potential for prefabrication on multiple levels. This paper explores and presents the current research and demonstrates how BIM software technology can be utilized to further innovation and increase the opportunities for prefabrication of MEP systems for modular construction projects.

Building Information Modeling (BIM) is the process of generating and managing building data during its life cycle. Typically it uses three-dimensional, real-time, dynamic building modeling software to increase productivity in building design and construction. BIM is a process which goes far beyond switching to new software. It requires changes to the definition of traditional architectural phases and more data sharing than most architects and engineers are used to. The process produces the Building Information Model (also abbreviated BIM), which encompasses building geometry, spatial relationships, geographic information, and quantities and properties of building components. Electrical Contractors are often short-changed during the MEP coordination process due to their under-utilization of technology, such as BIM, which can be used to assist them in performing pre-planning and pre-fabrication; all of which improve overall productivity. This project included conducting a survey to determine the best management practices (BMP's) and outlining the benefits of using BIM for Electrical Contractors. In addition, recommendations and guidelines, specific to Electrical Contractors, are proposed for implementing BIM to assist in the MEP coordination, pre-planning, and pre-fabrication processes.

Concerning the risk and incidents happening unexpectedly at working sites all around the world, construction industry has one of the first ranks between others according to relevant international and official statistics and formal evidences. Considering loss of life and property which such an incident can impose to the human being and society, it is obviously concluded that preventing from such accidents will preserve parts of human and financial sources which are both economic production factors. When it comes to construction, the main factor of accidents happening may briefly be entitled to the shortage of safety and security. This article is structured to believe that the main concept of safety is related to the quality of design rather than construction process and is trying to prove the fact that designers are the most capable to decrease the incidence rate of accidents. Some research results are included in this article to support of above mentioned issue and it is Indicated that 33% of incidents are linked to design process in Iran. Therefore undeniable role of designers and consultants is consequently highlighted enough due to access to the safe construction. In other words, the more applying the safety in architecture and structure design can lead us to the fewer incidents while construction and operation process.

This paper discusses contemporary strategies for managing and visualizing the building design process, and the link between a project organization, its tools, and the resulting product. The convergence of building information modeling software, analysis tools, and drawing production software has improved the integration of architecture and engineering disciplines during design, permitting optimization of a building system as a whole. Open source tools for information distribution and versioning have enabled global teams to accelerate concurrent engineering processes, effectively optimizing the project organization as a whole. And implementation programs have evolved into project-based initiatives, permitting teams to implement a global approach to design and engineering both in terms of geography and discipline. Two projects are presented, each an architectural project comprised of globally distributed design teams and a shared open source IT infrastructure, but with differing approaches to BIM. The first project uses a heterogeneous BIM system, allowing the supply chain to use various platforms, while the second relies on a homogeneous system, the same platform throughout the supply chain. The resulting effects of each are presented and compared.

Building elements, namely walls, roofs, slabs, stairs, ramps, doors, windows, internal walls, are the physical "architectural" components of the building. In the design process there are different approaches for developing typical details of building elements. "Copying" or "adapting" typical details from manufacturers' brochures, websites, catalogues or "best practice" handbooks are one way in developing building elements. The other way is to "design" genuine details of building elements, which comprises the integration of technology into design. In designing a "genuine" detail of a building element, designers have to cope with the complexity of a huge amount of criteria related to requirements, resources, constrains etc. and millions of alternative combinations of possible solutions. As "intuitive" design approaches might be insufficient in overcoming those difficulties, using "design methods" is a rational way. Especially for design students and inexperienced designers "design methods" are an important aid in the design process. But how efficient is it to use a "methodic" approach in designing building elements instead of an "intuitive" way? In the paper a "building element design method" from the German literature; "Methods of Construction and Choosing of Building Materials" (Methodik des Konstruierens und Wahl der Baustoffe) by H.F.O. Müller is examined. The method, which is based on VDI regulations (Association of German Engineers), is analyzed and the stages of the proposed process are defined. In "refining" and "clarifying" the method some new modules are added and some existing modules are extended. Finally the building element "design method" is simplified and transformed into a "stage by stage" process flow chart, easy to use for inexperienced designers. An experimental design process of building elements determines the "usability" of the method. As a result the simplified "stage by stage" procedure of the method and its "easy to use" rating from an inexperienced designer's point of view, are presented.

The building industry has become a complex world with the exploding number of new building materials and construction techniques since the industrial revolution and changing demands since the end of WWII. "Design methods" have been introduced instead of traditional design approaches in coping with complex design problems of modern times. Especially in the area of architectural technology in terms of detailing building elements, using "design methods" is an important aid in the design process. As the detailing of building elements stage has inputs which are mostly defined systematically, it is a rational way to use methodic approaches in the design process. In the paper, three "building element design methods" are examined. The first method is; H.F.O. Müller's "Method of Construction and Choosing of Building Materials", which is based on VDI regulations. The second method is; "Principles of Building Element Design", by P. Rich and Y. Dean. The last method, discussed in the paper is; "Generation and Evaluation of Alternatives for Building Elements" by M. Aygün. Those methods are analysed and the stages of the proposed processes are defined. Each "building element design method" is simplified and transformed into a "step by step" process flow chart to achieve a basis for better comparison. The three "building element design methods", from different cultural, technological and economical environments are evaluated with criteria for characterization and choosing of design methods. As a result the characteristics of the methods in comparison with each other are presented.