Water Resources and Environmental History

Photographs taken during the construction of the Strawberry Valley Project, Utah are presented. This graphic record of one of the earliest civil works of the United States Reclamation Service provides testimony to the challenges and achievements of the engineers and laborers who built the project.

This paper describes the dynamic evolution of hydrologic and hydraulic (H&H) engineering tools over the past 35 years. A discussion of the computational tools and models available in 1968, when the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) was initiated, through current state-of-the-art GIS-based tools will be discussed. Examples and personal experiences of how technology improvements have reduced many laborious and time-consuming tasks into automated procedures will be included. The paper will be outlined around this changing H&H technology, primarily as it relates to floodplain management and the NFIP.

Harbor protection from upland erosion and coastline sedimentation in the Greek and Roman era are illustrated for the harbors of Ephesos on the Aegean Sea and Seleukeia Piereia on the eastern Mediterranean coast. Sedimentation and delta propagation forced the harbor of Ephesos to be relocated and its access protected from the effects of coastline sedimentation. After many centuries of operation, the harbor was ultimately cut of from the sea, and the city of Ephesos declined as a prosperous and influential city. In the case of Seleukeia Piereia, a small intermittent mountain river discharged sediments into the harbor basin. Roman engineers protected the harbor by diverting the river and sediments through a mountain tunnel away from the harbor. Both examples illustrate the know-how and technical ability of the Greek and Romans to maintain and protect their harbors from siltation.

Brigadier Ralph Bagnold, especially well known for his pioneering work on wind blown sands in deserts, also published dozens of papers on sediment transport in oceans, on beaches and in rivers. Many of these papers remain standard works on their topics and have formed the basis for much of the progress achieved by subsequent researchers. One purpose of this paper is to provide historical perspective on his influence on sedimentation engineering. A second aim of equal importance is to communicate something of Bagnold the man to those unfamiliar with him or his amazing career.

The opportunities Hans Albert Einstein obtained while working at the U.S. Soil Conservation Service's Greenville Sediment Load Laboratory in South Carolina (1938 to 1943) helped him to become a leading authority on alluvial-sediment transport by rivers. This paper describes Einstein's work while in South Carolina.

The siltation behind dams in antiquity and measures to extend the operational life of reservoirs is illustrated for the Marib and Kebar dams in Yemen and Iran, respectively. For both dams siltation played a major role. The Marib dam impounded floodwaters to enable irrigation of downstream oases. Over several centuries, silts entrained in the irrigation water accumulated on the irrigated fields up to 15 m high, and the dam was raised to compensate for the loss of slope and conveyance due to the sedimentation. The Kebar dam was an arch dam designed as a small storage reservoir. In addition to small operational openings for irrigation water withdrawals, large openings on the upstream side of the dam were probably used during construction to pass the water of the river, but may also have been used for periodical flushing of accumulated sediments. Both examples show that the engineers of the time were keenly aware of reservoir siltation problems and were able to successfully extend the operational lifetime of the reservoirs by structural enhancements and probable sediment flushing.

Under the leadership of Professor Vito Vanoni from the California Institute of Technology, ASCE Manual 54 "Sedimentation Engineering" was published in 1975. This volume became the main reference in the field of sedimentation in the United States and worldwide. Substantial progress has been made in the field for the last 30 years to warrant the preparation of a second volume, which would complement the outstanding original one. A Task Committee has been working since 1991 to bring Volume 2 of Manual 54 to completion. The motivation for preparing it and the chapters included in the new volume are presented in this paper. With the original Manual 54, Professor Vanoni set up a standard that has been difficult to reach and hard to emulate. The companion volume builds on Vito Vanoni's legacy, reflecting his keen interest in understanding the mechanics of sediment transport as well as his love for river processes and sedimentation engineering. This paper presents some of the challenges and opportunities in the field of sedimentation engineering, the contributions of Vito Vanoni and his legacy to the profession, the history of Manual 54, and the outline of the new volume to be published by EWRI/ASCE. This second volume will be dedicated to Professor Vito Vanoni, the energetic and visionary editor and contributing author for the original volume of Sedimentation Engineering, now a classic reference.

Utah's history over the past several hundred years and the availability of water correlate closely and help to explain its past. Water influenced the way of life of the Native Americans and when the Mormon pioneers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley in July 1847 the availability of water would determine their method of colonizing the region. Out of necessity, pioneers adopted the concept of the prior appropriation doctrine, which fundamental principle is first in time, first in right. Much of the early administration and development of water in Utah was done under cooperative irrigation systems. Initially the State Engineer had limited power and authority to only measure stream flow, approve plans for dams and assist in resolving water disputes. In 1903 the Legislature adopted the basic tenants of Utah water law. The 1903 statutes granted the State Engineer with the general administration, distribution, and measurement of waters of the State. The duties of the State Engineer have evolved over the past 100 years, along with our body of water law, as defined in statute and case law. This paper will review the history of the development of Utah water law and the first 100 years of the State Engineer's Office.

Colorado's rich water history began with pre-historic forces that shaped the Rocky Mountains, early and Native Americans, European Settlers, and the convergence of modern forces that led to today's water management clashes. The paper traces in brief fashion the history of Colorado water, and notes the main issues facing the state's citizens today.

Our water legacy is measured in terms of the spirit and determination of our predecessors who first dammed the streams, dug the ditches and canals and later built the large water projects that provide us the water we have today. To appreciate our Utah water legacy, it's necessary to understand the history of our water development. Who were the leaders in developing the water that today is our legacy? This paper traces the major water development milestones in Utah through the leaders who made them possible. These milestones are described and proceed from the early pioneers to the present day.

This paper will briefly describe some of the more important documents relating to the development of the Colorado River and the creation of "the Law of the River". Recent actions resulting in the 2003 Quantification Settlement Agreement are placed in historical perspective.

The Indians of the Southwest from 1200 years ago were able to harvest, store, and manage water supplies where modern engineers would say there are none. The engineering study of four reservoir archaeological sites at Mesa Verde National Park has defined the Anasazi as being talented and successful hydrologists. Their abilities for reservoir building and maintenance over hundreds of years is a tribute to their water management skills.

The Upper Mississippi River Navigation System extends from Minneapolis, Minnesota downstream to Cairo, Illinois, a total distance of approximately 857.6 miles. In 1930, Congress authorized the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers to construct a series of navigation locks and dams in order to provide a minimum nine-foot depth for commercial navigation throughout the Upper Mississippi River. A total of 29 locks and dams between Minneapolis and Saint Louis transformed the Upper Mississippi River into a succession of "stair steps" formed by the pools to facilitate commercial navigation during periods of low water. Towboats ascend or descend the "stairway", with the assurance that at least nine feet of depth is available to float their cargo-laden barges. The operation of the Upper Mississippi River Navigation System has been assigned to three different offices of the Corps. The St. Paul District oversees the northernmost portion of the system that extends approximately from River Mile 614 upstream to River Mile 857.6. The Rock Island District oversees the central portion of the system that extends approximately from River Mile 216 upstream to River Mile 614. And, the St. Louis District oversees the southernmost portion of the system that extends from Cairo, Illinois at River Mile 0 upstream to River Mile 216. The paper describes the history of the Upper Mississippi River Navigation System, from the ante-bellum heyday of the great steamboats through today's modern tow barges. The paper also describes the modern technology employed to operate the system today.

Arsène Jules Étienne Dupuit (1804–1866) made contributions in several areas of engineering. On the 200th anniversary of his birth, this paper will review his most significant work in water resources, specifically economic analysis, flood hydrology, water supply, hydraulics, and groundwater. It is shown that Dupuit played an important role in advancing engineering analyses though his ability to apply mathematics in complex systems. He both defined water resource related processes and showed how they could be quantified, studied and designed.

An entertaining perspective on peoples' relationships with rivers emerges from a brief delving into the ways people have named or characterized rivers. This paper presents insights from this perspective.

The paper briefly describes the history of the great Canal at Suez, the engineering and construction challenges and the enormous obstacles that had to be overcome. The paper reviews the geology, topography and morphology of the Isthmus and provides a detailed review of the soil investigation campaign and the soil classification of the canal. The engineering aspects of the canal are also reviewed which include geotechnical, marine and port, material, hydraulic and irrigation engineering. The paper also reviews the construction techniques and utilization of dredgers. Although the projects to connect the Mediterranean and Red Seas dates back to 1800 B.C., the beginning of present day construction of the Suez Canal started in 1859, with expansion of the canal still ongoing.

Before Columbus sailed for America, the Inca civil engineers built an empire based on roads, agriculture, and water management. Prehistoric civil engineers at Machu Picchu harnessed groundwater with a carefully designed collection works system, transported it to its point of use in a stone-lined canal, and then distributed it for domestic use via 16 fountains. By maintaining a separation between water supply and drainage runoff, the water quality was insured. Machu Picchu, the lost city of the Inca, provides an example of New World prehistoric civil engineering genius. Its environment, setting, layout, and design has made it a U.N. World Heritage Site and a National Geographic Society World Wonder.

The design and construction of earthfill and rockfill embankment dams in the Western United States have evolved dramatically during the past century (1902–2003). The U.S. Department of the Interior's Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) has played a significant role in that evolution of embankment dam engineering, construction, and dam safety during the 20th Century. This paper discusses how Reclamation's embankment dam design and construction have evolved since its creation in 1902. A central component of the evolution of embankment dam engineering has been the birth and maturation of geotechnical engineering as a civil engineering specialty. The development of Reclamation's publications is also noted. The failure of Teton Dam and the lessons learned from that event are briefly discussed in the paper.

A brief history of the evolution of the Hydrologic Services Program of the United States National Weather Service is presented. Since creation of the Weather Bureau in 1870 under the Army Signal Corps and passage of an Act by Congress to transfer it to a civilian service in 1890, weather and hydrologic services in the United States have made significant strides toward creation of a service to provide environmental information, for historical, current and future conditions, to all citizens. Environmental science has greatly advanced over the past 133 years, particularly since 1940. Special studies and international activities have played an important role in hydrologic development in the National Weather Service. Much of this progress has been related to intergovernmental activities. Future programs promise even further improvements and better real-time service.

The engineers of the United States Public Health Service have been instrumental in many of the greatest health achievements in the last century. They have contributed to key advancements in pubic health that improve and extend the lives of all Americans. Along with giving a short description and history of the Commissioned Corps of the US Public Health Service, this paper will outline these achievements and highlight some of the more important ones.

The history of UNESCO activities in hydrology is described. Water related effort begin in 1948 and continues today. The International Hydrological Program is a direct result of the International Hydrological Decade of 1965 to 1974.

The Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology became the library for the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1995, when the Engineering Societies Library in New York was transferred to the Linda Hall Library in Kansas City. Combined holdings of the two libraries now offer a rich repository for rare and historical materials in engineering and related sciences. Historical engineering materials include, for example, firsthand accounts of the Panama Canal project, rare engineering books from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and records of American engineering projects such as the Croton aqueduct in New York.

A sketch of the history of the St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory at the University of Minnesota is presented.

The Albrook Hydraulics Laboratory was constructed literally around an early physical model at the Washington State University Pullman campus. Since the first model study approximately fifty years ago, the laboratory facility was enlarged two more times as a response to the growing demand for model studies with the expansion of hydroelectric projects in the Pacific Northwest. In the last two decades, society has come to question the very existence of dams due in great part to the steady decline of salmonid populations in the region. Thus, activities at the laboratory have shifted from evaluating construction to evaluating operation and restoration. This paper will retrace the evolution in hydraulics in the Pacific Northwest using laboratory projects as indicators.

With the exception of our neighbor to the west, Nevada, Utah receives less annual average precipitation (approximately 13 inches) than any of the other 50 States. The average rainfall for the United States is approximately 30 inches per year. As a result, water problems and solutions have always played an important role in Utah. To assist in providing solutions to state, national, and international water problems and to develop a world-class facility for water research, plans began as early as 1949 to construct a water research facility at Utah State University. Through funding provided by the Utah State Legislature, National Science Foundation, and the National Institutes of Health, the Utah Water Research Laboratory was completed in 1965. The Utah Water Research Laboratory (UWRL) is home to Utah State University (USU) faculty, staff, and students who work in the areas of water resources, hydrology, groundwater, wastewater, water quality, air quality, hazardous waste remediation, natural systems, and hydraulics. Of the facilities 80,000 square feet of floor space, approximately 50,000 square feet are dedicated to the hydraulics laboratory, the subject of this paper. UWRL hydraulics research contributions over the past 39 years have been diverse. A partial list of areas of contribution include hydraulic structures, pump stations, hydraulic flow resistance of plants in channels, erosion control, cavitation, transients, culverts, storm grates, hydraulic flow resistance in pipes, flow metering, and more. This paper describes the UWRL's hydraulics lab capabilities, previous contributions to the field of hydraulics, current focuses, and vision of experimental hydraulics in the future.

The Environmental & Water Resources Institute (EWRI) related projects within the ASCE Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement (OCEAs) winners and the award of merit projects will be detailed. The list includes projects since the program's inception in 1960 and through the 2003 awardees.

The historic achievements of American civil engineers in developing, managing and protecting the nation's water and related land and air resources are celebrated in this description of water resources and environmental projects that have been designated as National Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks (NHCELs) (and International HCELs) by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Individually these projects represent some of the greatest technical accomplishments of individual civil engineers and the agencies and companies that employ them. Collectively they demonstrate the American civil engineering profession's long-standing commitment to beneficial and sustainable management of the nation's water and related land and air resources.

The Irrigation Engineering (IR) Division in ASCE was authorized on June 20, 1922 with 23 members and a five-member Executive Committee elected by members of the Division. The Division grew to 645 members and affiliates by 1927. The IR Division was renamed the Irrigation and Drainage (I&D) Division in 1953. A summary of the Division's activities includes water conservation, capacity of irrigated lands to pay irrigation costs, sedimentation in reservoirs, irrigation conveyance losses, irrigation and drainage practices in humid areas, drought, reuse of waters for irrigation, on-farm irrigation, and water quality. Many details are provided in the lists of the committees and task committees during the time this author was associated with numerous phases of and actions taken for the activities. Most of the information came directly from the information in the ASCE Year Books and/or Official Registers as referenced herein. The task committees are all listed by year, committee, and they are in italics. The 1995 ASCE Strategic Plan called for the creation of semi-autonomous Institutes for groups of engineering specialties within ASCE. In 1999, the Environmental and Water Resources Institute (EWRI) was formed from the former Technical Divisions of Environmental (Sanitary in 1922) Engineering, Water Resources Engineering (including Irrigation and Drainage), and Water Resources Planning and Management, as well as the ASCE Water and Environmental Standards Council. The present Irrigation and Drainage Council (IDC) of EWRI of ASCE oversees the activities of Technical Committees such as Water Quality and Drainage, Irrigation Delivery and Drainage Systems, Evapotranspiration in Irrigation and Hydrology, and On-Farm Irrigation.

The American Water Resources Association (AWRA) was organized in 1964 with Robert W. Finfrock as its first president. The mission of the organization as envisioned by the organizers was to promote an improved understanding of water resources and related issues by providing a multidisciplinary forum for information exchange, professional development, and education. Since its organization the AWRA membership has grown steadily to a present total of more than 2,500, with members living in a total of 44 countries and a corporate membership of more than 50, AWRA is now recognized as the preeminent professional organization for information exchange about water resources issues. Because these issues are always multidisciplinary in nature, the members of the organization include (but are not limited to) economists, hydrologists, meteorologists, range scientists, foresters, water quality professionals, sociologists, and engineers. Since its organization AWRA has been led by 35 presidents from a wide variety of disciplines. The paper includes remembered highlights from many of these past presidents and will reflect a brief history of the AWRA since its organization nearly 40 years ago. The paper also includes a discussion on how the AWRA is preparing to address the challenging water supply and water resources management issues of the Twenty-first Century.