An Investigation of the Current Situation of Floodplain Mapping in British Columbia: A Fuzzy Rule-Based Approach
Publication: Journal of Urban Planning and Development
Volume 149, Issue 4
Abstract
The increased intensity of floods has become an emerging phenomenon in British Columbia, Canada. Flooding causes significant damage to properties and the built environment. The flood damage is magnified by the unthoughtful location choices for settlements and incoherent land use policies. This has severely restricted the capacity to build resilience to adapt to the unpredictable challenges of floods. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the current state of the floodplain maps that entail the spatial distribution of floods and the associated risks to the communities is paramount. Therefore, the British Columbia Real Estate Association (BCREA) attempted to identify pathways to increase awareness of the current state of the floodplain maps and prepare an updated inventory and its vitality to build resilient communities. The survey results suggested that 38.5% of the communities have created or updated their floodplain maps since 2015, and 62% of the maps meet the British Columbia Flood Hazard Area Land Use Management Guidelines. However, a survey conducted in 2020 suggested an increase in the response rate by 12.8%, which indicates a growing urgency to mitigate flood risks. Due to a lack of expertise and pertinent knowledge, 46% of the communities could not create or update the floodplain maps. In addition, the lack of provincial funding was identified as a key impediment to the floodplain mapping that was experienced by 37.5% of the communities. A schematic perception–action–state–accessibility–usage (PASAU) framework was proposed in this study to confirm the current state of floodplain mapping. The British Columbia, Canada, regions were ranked following a fuzzy rule-based approach to assess the nature and status of preparations for floodplain maps. The result suggests that the Northern Territories, Canada, lie at the low and others are at the medium scale. Communities that scored low were attributed to a lack of funding, in-house expertise, data, and planning endeavors. This study suggested actions for different tiers of the government to make the communities safer and more resilient.
Practical Applications
The frequency and impacts of flooding are increasing in British Columbia, Canada. The location choices for settlements and incoherent land use policies have increased the intensity of its impact. This stems from the need for floodplain maps that show the spatial distribution of floods and associated risks. The BCREA prepared an updated floodplain maps inventory from 2015. A survey found that 38% of the communities have created or updated their floodplain maps since then. The survey revealed an increased response (12.8%) and a growing urgency to mitigate flood risks. A lack of expertise and pertinent in-house expertise, data, and provincial funding were identified as the key impediments to the absence or lack of updates on the floodplain maps. In this study, a schematic PASAU framework was proposed to confirm the current state of floodplain mapping. The British Columbia, Canada, regions were ranked to assess the preparation status for floodplain maps. In the preparation and updating of floodplain maps, the Northern Territories, Canada, lie at the low and others at the medium level, and a few communities scored low. To make the communities safer and more resilient, a few actions on planning, management, and governance were suggested for adoption.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or codes generated or used during this study are proprietary or confidential and may only be provided with restrictions.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the financial assistance of Mitacs and the BCREA.
References
Ahilan, S., J. Webber, and D. Butler. 2019. “Building urban flood resilience with rainwater management.” In Proc., 17th Int. Computing & Control for the Water Industry Conf., 3–4. Exeter, UK: University of Exeter.
APEGBC. 2017. “Flood mapping in BC, APEGBC professional practice guidelines.” https://www.egbc.ca/getmedia/8748e1cf-3a80-458d-8f73-94d6460f310f/APEGBC-Guidelines-for-Flood-Mapping-in-BC.pdf.aspx.
Atta-ur-Rahman, G. A. Parvin, R. Shaw, and A. Surjan. 2016. “Cities, vulnerability, and climate change.” Urban Disasters Resil Asia 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802169-9.00003-3.
BCREA. 2015. “BC flood plain map inventory report.” Prepared for British Columbia Real Estate Association. https://www.bcrea.bc.ca/wpcontent/uploads/2015FloodplainMapInventory.pdf.
Beven, K., D. Leedal, S. McCarthy, R. Lamb, and N. Hunter. 2011. “Framework for assessing uncertainty in fluvial flood risk mapping.” FRMRC Research Rep. SWP1, 7. London: FRMRC.
Bodoque, J. M., M. Amérigo, A. Díez-herrero, J. A. García, B. Cortés, J. A. Ballesteros-Cánovas, and J. Olcina. 2016. “Improvement of resilience of urban areas by integrating social perception in flash-flood risk management.” J. Hydrol. 541: 665–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.02.005.
Burton, l. 2016. “Floods in Canada.” The Canadian Encyclopedia. Toronto, ON: The Canadian Press.
Chang, H., A. Pallathadka, J. Sauer, N. B. Grimm, R. Zimmerman, C. Cheng, D. M. Iwaniec, Y. Kim, R. Lloyd, T. McPhearson, and B. Rosenzweig. 2021. “Assessment of urban flood vulnerability using the social-ecological-technological systems framework in six US cities.” Sustain. Cities Soc. 68: 102786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.102786.
Chiaravalloti, R. M., K. Homewood, and K. Erikson. 2017. “Sustainability and Land tenure: Who owns the floodplain in the Pantanal, Brazil?” Land Use Policy 64: 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.03.005.
Chowdhooree, I. 2019. “Indigenous knowledge for enhancing community resilience: An experience from the south-western coastal region of Bangladesh.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 40: 101259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101259.
City of Kelowna. 2019. “Flooding.” Accessed July 6, 2020. https://www.kelowna.ca/city-services/safety-emergency-services/flooding.
CIVICINFOBC. 2000. Municipalities. Accessed June 4, 2022. https://www.civicinfo.bc.ca/municipalities.
De Risi, R., F. Jalayer, F. De Paola, and M. Giugni. 2014. “Probabilistic delineation of flood-prone areas based on a digital elevation model and the extent of historical flooding: The case of Ouagadougou.” Bol. Geol. Min. 125: 329–340.
de Souza Robaina, L. E., T. C. Kormann, and G. J. Schirmer. 2013. “Zoning of flooding in urban alegrete - Rio Grande do Sul - Brazil.” Geociencias 32: 346–355.
Dixon, T. H., F. Amelung, A. Ferretti, F. Novali, F. Rocca, R. Dokka, G. Sella, S.-W. Kim, S. Wdowinski, and D. Whitman. 2006. “Subsidence and flooding in New Orleans.” Nature 441: 587–588. https://doi.org/10.1038/441587a.
Dzulkarnain, A., E. Suryani, and M. R. Aprillya. 2019. “Analysis of flood identification and mitigation for disaster preparedness: A system thinking approach.” Procedia Comp. Sci. 161: 927–934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2019.11.201.
Eldho, T. I., P. E. Zope, and A. T. Kulkarni. 2018. “Urban flood management in coastal regions using numerical simulation and geographic information system.” Integr. Disaster Sci. Manage. 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812056-9.00012-9.
Erős, T., and Z. Bányai. 2020. “Sparing and sharing land for maintaining the multifunctionality of large floodplain rivers.” Sci.Total Environ. 728: 138441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138441.
Felipe-Lucia, M. R., B. Martín-López, S. Lavorel, L. Berraquero-Díaz, J. Escalera-Reyes, and F. A. Comín. 2015. “Ecosystem services flows: Why stakeholders’ power relationships matter.” PloS One 10 (7): e0132232. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132232.
Feng, B., Y. Zhang, and R. Bourke. 2021. “Urbanization impacts on flood risks based on urban growth data and coupled flood models.” Nat. Hazard. 106: 613–627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-04480-0.
Gillett, N. P., et al. 2022. “Human influence on the 2021 British Columbia floods.” Weather Clim. Extremes 36: 100441. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WACE.2022.100441.
Gori, A., R. Blessing, A. Juan, S. Brody, and P. Bedient. 2019. “Characterizing urbanization impacts on floodplain through integrated land use, hydrologic, and hydraulic modeling.” J. Hydrol. 568: 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.053.
Government of Canada. 2022, “Tri-Council Policy Statement, Ethical Conduct for research involving humans TCPS2.” https://ethics.gc.ca/eng/documents/tcps2-2022-en.pdf.
Imboden, D. 2020. “High tides and flooding in Venice, Italy.” Accessed April 27, 2021. https://europeforvisitors.com/venice/articles/acqua-alta.htm.
Ishaq, S., K. M. Nahiduzzaman, S. R. Sultana, A. Rana, S. Mohammadiun, P. Yousefi, K. Hewage, and R. Sadiq. 2022. “Flood-resilient governance in Okanagan valley of British Columbia: current practices and future directives.” Environ. Rev. 31 (2): 327–347. https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2022-0006.
Jafarzadegan, K., and V. Merwade. 2019. “Probabilistic floodplain mapping using HAND-based statistical approach.” Geomorphology 324: 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.09.024.
Jafarzadegan, K., V. Merwade, and S. Saksena. 2018. “A geomorphic approach to 100-year floodplain mapping for the conterminous United States.” J. Hydrol. 561: 43–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.03.061.
Jin, G., X. Deng, Y. Yuan, S. Ma, Z. Li, and S. Shi. 2017. “Scenario simulation of land exploitation and risk assessment of soil erosion in the low-slope hilly area of the Erhai basin.” Phys. Chem. Earth. Parts a/b/c 101: 78–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2017.01.020.
Kadam, P., and D. Sen. 2012. “Flood inundation simulation in Ajoy River using MIKE-FLOOD.” ISH J. Hydraul. Eng. 18: 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/09715010.2012.695449.
Kalyanapu, A. J., D. R. Judi, T. N. McPherson, and S. J. Burian. 2012. “Monte Carlo-based flood modelling framework for estimating probability weighted flood risk.” J. Flood Risk Manage. 5: 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1753-318X.2011.01123.X.
Karim, F., A. Kinsey-Henderson, J. Wallace, A. H. Arthington, and R. G. Pearson. 2012. “Modelling wetland connectivity during overbank flooding in a tropical floodplain in north Queensland, Australia.” Hydrol. Processes 26: 2710–2723. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.8364.
Labbé, S. 2021. B.C. floods among world's most devastating climate events of 2021.” PIQUE News Nagazine, December 26. Accessed March 10, 2022. https://www.piquenewsmagazine.com/local-news/bc-floods-among-worlds-most-devastating-climate-events-of-2021-4889297.
Lashford, C., M. Rubinato, Y. Cai, J. Hou, S. Abolfathi, S. Coupe, S. Charlesworth, and S. Tait. 2019. “SuDS & sponge cities: A comparative analysis of the implementation of pluvial flood management in the UK and China.” Sustainability 11: 213. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010213.
McClymont, K., D. Morrison, L. Beevers, and E. Carmen. 2020. “Flood resilience: A systematic review.” J. Environ. Plann. Manage. 63: 1151–1176. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2019.1641474.
Mohanty, M. P., and S. P. Simonovic. 2020. “Water Resources Research Report A comprehensive framework for regional floodplain mapping.” London, ON: Western University.
Mohanty, M. P., and S. P. Simonovic. 2021. “Fidelity of reanalysis datasets in floodplain mapping: Investigating performance at inundation level over large regions.” J. Hydrol. 597: 125757. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHYDROL.2020.125757.
Montané, A., T. Buffin-Bélanger, F. Vinet, and O. Vento. 2017. “Mappings extreme floods with numerical floodplain models (NFM) in France.” Appl. Geogr. 80: 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2017.01.002.
Nahiduzzaman, K. M., A. S. Aldosary, and M. T. Rahman. 2015. “Flood induced vulnerability in strategic plan making process of Riyadh city.” Habitat Int. 49: 375–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.05.034.
OOSA. 2019. “Flooding affected more people in 2018 than any other disaster type report shows.” https://www.un-spider.org/news-and-events/news/flooding-affected-more-people-2018-any-other-disaster-type-report-shows.
Pizzol, M., M. Scotti, and M. Thomsen. 2013. “Network analysis as a tool for assessing environmental sustainability: Applying the ecosystem perspective to a Danish Water Management System.” J. Environ. Manage. 118: 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.12.042.
Public Safety Canada. 2021. “Federal flood mapping guidelines series.” https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/mrgnc-mngmnt/dsstr-prvntn-mtgtn/ndmp/fldpln-mppng-en.aspx.
Rahman, M. T., A. S. Aldosary, K. M. Nahiduzzaman, and I. Reza. 2016. “Vulnerability of flash flooding in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.” Nat. Hazards 84: 1807–1830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2521-8.
Ramsey, M. M., T. A. Muñoz-Erickson, E. Mélendez-Ackerman, C. J. Nytch, B. L. Branoff, and D. Carrasquillo-Medrano. 2019. “Overcoming barriers to knowledge integration for urban resilience: A knowledge systems analysis of two-flood prone communities in San Juan, Puerto Rico.” Environ. Sci. Policy 99: 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.013.
Salinas Rodriguez, C. N. A., R. Ashley, B. Gersonius, J. Rijke, A. Pathirana, and C. Zevenbergen. 2014. “Incorporation and application of resilience in the context of water-sensitive urban design: Linking European and Australian perspectives.” WIREs Water 1: 173–186. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1017.
Schuch, G., S. Serrao-neumann, E. Morgan, and D. Low. 2017. “Water in the city: Green open spaces, land use planning and flood management – An Australian case study.” Land Use Policy 63: 539–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.01.042.
Stefan, L. 2021. “Floods among worst events – BC floods among world's most devastating climate events of 2021.” Castanet. https://www.castanet.net/edition/news-story-355549-3-.htm.
UNISDR. 2018. Economic losses, poverty & disasters: 1998-2017. Geneva: UNISDR.
Zeng, S., H. Guo, and X. Dong. 2019. “Understanding the synergistic effect between LID facility and drainage network: With a comprehensive perspective.” J. Environ. Manage. 246: 849–859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.06.028.
Zhu, S., D. Li, G. Huang, G. Chhipi-Shrestha, K. M. Nahiduzzaman, K. Hewage, and R. Sadiq. 2021. “Enhancing urban flood resilience: A holistic framework incorporating historic worst flood to Yangtze River delta, China.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 61: 102355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102355.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Oct 1, 2022
Accepted: Apr 24, 2023
Published online: Aug 10, 2023
Published in print: Dec 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Jan 10, 2024
ASCE Technical Topics:
- Artificial intelligence and machine learning
- Business management
- Computer programming
- Computing in civil engineering
- Distribution functions
- Engineering fundamentals
- Financial management
- Financing
- Floods
- Fuzzy logic
- Geomatic surveys
- Geomatics
- Infrastructure
- Land surveys
- Land use
- Mapping
- Mathematical functions
- Mathematics
- Mitigation and remediation
- Practice and Profession
- Spatial distribution
- Surveying methods
- Urban and regional development
- Urban areas
- Water and water resources
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.