A Framework for Transitions in the Built Environment: Insights from Compound Hazards in the COVID-19 Era
Publication: Journal of Infrastructure Systems
Volume 30, Issue 1
Abstract
The COVID-19 era has witnessed numerous successful and unsuccessful attempts to adapt or reconfigure physical, virtual, and hybrid aspects of the built environment in order to mitigate the risks of co-occuring (i.e., compound) hazards. But it has also witnessed major challenges to ensuring that the protections these reconfigurations afford are equitably distributed. Additional theoretical and empirical research is needed to inform transitions (via adaptive reconfiguration) toward short-term goals of health and well-being, as well as to guide transformations (via the establishment of stable configuration) toward longer-term goals of equitable societal function. To this end, this paper presents a framework for conceptualizing adaptation of the built environment as a series of state transitions in response to (or in anticipation of) compound hazards. It draws upon cases from recent experience in the areas of food production, shelter, and education to critique, clarify, and explicate this framework. It concludes with implications for further research on the management of transitions in the built environment under a range of hazard scenarios.
Practical Applications
The COVID-19 pandemic provided a global backdrop for the study of the capacities and vulnerabilities of many aspects of societal function, challenging conventions around the design and operation of wide classes of infrastructure to protect populations from pandemics as well as hazards such as hurricanes and earthquakes. The framework offered by this study, and its application through the associated case studies, reveals how observed adaptations of the built environment can elucidate new potentials to mitigate the risks associated with co-occuring (i.e., compound) hazards, as well as areas where our existing conventions are no longer compatible with contemporary uses of the built environment. One such convention challenged by this study is the definition of critical infrastructure in existing regulatory frameworks. The built environment transitions documented by this study suggest that contemporary notions of what infrastructure is critical and what services are essential have outstripped the traditional notions in codes and standards, demanding corresponding realignment of regulatory frameworks to ensure life-safety can still be achieved as usages evolve.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
No data, models, or code were generated or used during the study.
Acknowledgments
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 2041666. We thank the reviewers for their many helpful comments, and Liam Michael Verses for research assistance.
References
Abbou, A., R. A. Davidson, J. Kendra, V. Nuno Martins, B. Ewing, L. K. Nozick, Z. Cox, and M. Leon-Corwin. 2022. “Household adaptations to infrastructure system service interruptions.” J. Infrastruct. Syst. 28 (4): 04022036. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IS.1943-555X.0000715.
Abril, D. 2021. Back in the classroom, teachers are finding pandemic tech has changed their jobs forever. Washington, DC: The Washington Post.
Aghakouchak, A., F. Chiang, L. S. Huning, C. A. Love, I. Mallakpour, O. Mazdiyasni, H. Moftakhari, S. M. Papalexiou, E. Ragno, and M. Sadegh. 2020. “Climate extremes and compound hazards in a warming world.” Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 48 (May): 519–548. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-071719-055228.
Alani, M. W., W. Zeiada, G. Al-Khateeb, A. Maksoud, H. B. Al-Beer, E. Mushtaha, W. Yahia, and M. W. Yahia. 2022. “Self-learning buildings: Integrating artificial intelligence to create a building that can adapt to future challenges.” IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 1019 (1): 12047. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1019/1/012047.
Alanne, K., and S. Sierla. 2022. “An overview of machine learning applications for smart buildings.” Sustainable Cities Soc. 76 (Jun): 103445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103445.
Alexander, A. 2021. The history of derechos. Washington, DC: WHO.
Allen, G. 2022. As Ian’s death toll rises, questions swirl on why more Floridians didn’t evacuate. Washington, DC: National Public Radio.
ASCE. 2022. Minimum design loads and associated criteria for buildings and other structures. ASCE/SEI 7-22. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Ayers, J., and T. Forsyth. 2009. “Community-based adaptation to climate change.” Environment 51 (4): 22–31. https://doi.org/10.3200/ENV.51.4.22-31.
Bassett, T. J., and C. Fogelman. 2013. “Déjà vu or something new? The adaptation concept in the climate change literature.” Geoforum 48 (Aug): 42–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.04.010.
BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation). 2020. “Hurricane Delta makes landfall in storm-battered Louisiana.” Accessed November 6, 2023. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-54489432.
Beroggi, G. E., L. Waisel, and W. A. Wallace. 1995. “Employing virtual reality to support decision making in emergency management.” Saf. Sci. 20 (1): 79–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/0925-7535(94)00068-E.
Bogage, J., T. Telford, and K. Kindy. 2020. Trump orders meat plants to stay open in pandemic. Washington, DC: The Washington Post.
Bonderud, D. 2021. “What Role will hybrid learning play in the future of K-12 education?” EdTech Magazine. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2021/02/what-role-will-hybrid-learning-play-future-k-12-education-perfcon.
Bradbury, S. 2020. Colorado wildfires: Snow hits Cameron Peak, should move to East Troublesome Sunday afternoon. Denver: The Denver Post.
Brand, U. 2014. “Transition und transformation: Sozialökologische Perspektiven.” In Futuring. Perspektiven der Transformation im Kapitalismus über ihn hinaus, edited by M. Brie, 242–280. Münster, Germany: Westfälisches Dampfboot.
Carvalhaes, T., S. Markolf, A. Helmrich, Y. Kim, R. Li, M. Natarajan, E. Bondank, N. Ahmad, and M. Chester. 2020. “COVID-19 as a Harbinger of transforming infrastructure resilience.” Front. Built Environ. 6 (Sep): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2020.00148.
Catto, J. L., and A. Dowdy. 2021. “Understanding compound hazards from a weather system perspective.” Weather Clim. Extremes 32 (Jun): 100313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2021.100313.
Ciurean, R., J. Gill, H. Reeves, S. O’Grady, and T. Aldridge. 2018. “Review of environmental multi-hazards research and risk assessments.” Br. Geol. Survey 86 (Apr): 13.
Clark, S. S., T. P. Seager, and M. V. Chester. 2018. “A capabilities approach to the prioritization of critical infrastructure.” Environ. Syst. Decis. 38 (3): 339–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-018-9691-8.
Cohn, S. 2021. These are America’s 10 worst states for remote work in 2021. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Consumer News and Business Channel.
Collins, J., and A. Polen. 2022. COVID-19 vs. Hurricanes: Evacuation risk perception during a pandemic. Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Center.
Collins, J., A. Polen, E. Dunn, L. Maas, E. Ackerson, J. Valmond, E. Morales, and D. Colón-Burgos. 2022. “Hurricane hazards, evacuations, and sheltering: Evacuation decision-making in the prevaccine era of the COVID-19 pandemic in the PRVI region.” Weather Clim. Soc. 14 (2): 451–466. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-21-0134.1.
Collins, J., A. Polen, K. McSweeney, D. Colón-Burgos, and I. Jernigan. 2021. “Hurricane risk perceptions and evacuation decision-making in the age of COVID-19.” Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 102 (4): 836–848. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0229.1.
Coronavirus Resource Center. 2022. “Impact of opening and closing decisions in Louisiana, New cases—Johns Hopkins.” Accessed November 6, 2023. https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/data/state-timeline/new-confirmed-cases/louisiana/64.
Cutter, S. L., L. Barnes, M. Berry, C. Burton, E. Evans, E. Tate, and J. Webb. 2008. “A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters.” Global Environ. Change 18 (4): 598–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.07.013.
De Angeli, S., et al. 2022. “A multi-hazard framework for spatial-temporal impact analysis.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 73 (Apr): 102829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.102829.
Demetrakakes, P. 2021. “Hurricane Ida shuts down chicken plants.” Food processing. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://www.foodprocessing.com/ingredients/animal-proteins/news/11294069/hurricane-ida-shuts-down-chicken-plants.
Dickler, J. 2021. Virtual school resulted in ’significant academic learning loss,’ study finds. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: CNBC.
Dietz, L., P. F. Horve, D. A. Coil, M. Fretz, J. A. Eisen, and K. Van Den Wymelenberg. 2020. “2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic: Built environment considerations to reduce transmission.” Systems 5 (2): e00245. https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00245-20.
Djalante, R. 2012. “Review Article: Adaptive governance and resilience: The role of multi-stakeholder platforms in disaster risk reduction.” Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 12 (9): 2923–2942. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-2923-2012.
Douglas, L. 2022. Nearly 90% of big US meat plants had COVID-19 cases in pandemic’s first year—Data. London: Reuters.
Duncan, M., S. Edwards, C. Kilburn, J. Twigg, and K. Crowley. 2016. “An interrelated hazards approach to anticipating evolving risk.” In The making of a riskier future: How our decisions are shaping future disaster risk, 114–121. Washington, DC: Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery.
Durkee, A. 2021. Hurricane Ida Could Make Louisiana’s Covid-19 Outbreak ‘Much, Much Worse,’ Fauci Says. New York: Forbes.
Eggleston, C., and J. Fields. 2021. Census Bureau’s household pulse survey shows significant increase in homeschooling rates in fall 2020. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau.
Eller, D. 2020. Iowa estimates that Derecho damage to homes, farms will be close to $4 billion. Will it go higher? Des Moines, IA: Des Moines Register.
Ernst, L., R. E. De Graaf-Van Dinthera, G. J. Peek, and D. A. Loorbach. 2016. “Sustainable urban transformation and sustainability transitions: Conceptual framework and case study.” J. Cleaner Prod. 112 (Jan): 2988–2999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.136.
Esnard, A.-M., B. S. Lai, C. Wyczalkowski, N. Malmin, and H. Shah. 2018. “School vulnerability to disaster: Examination of demographic and exposure factors in hurricane Ike’s wind swath.” Nat. Hazards 90 (2): 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-017-3057-2.
Fekete, A., S. Fuchs, M. Garschagen, G. Hutter, S. Klepp, C. Lüder, T. Neise, D. Sett, K. von Elverfeldt, and M. Wannewitz. 2022. “Adjustment or transformation? Disaster risk intervention examples from Austria, Indonesia, Kiribati and South Africa.” Land Use Policy 120 (Sep): 106230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106230.
FEMA. 2021. Recommended options for improving the built environment for post-earthquake reoccupancy and functional recovery time. FEMA P2090. Washington, DC: FEMA.
FEMA. 2023. Essential facilities located in Tornado-Prone regions: Recommendations for facility owners. Washington, DC: FEMA.
Feuer, W. 2020. Coronavirus: Texas evacuates residents for Hurricane Laura as pandemic poses new challenges. Washington, DC: CNBC.
Fischels, J. 2021. The midwest was hit by a Derecho a year ago today. Washington, DC: National Public Radio.
Folke, C., S. R. Carpenter, B. Walker, M. Scheffer, T. Chapin, and J. Rockström. 2010. “Resilience thinking: Integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability.” Ecol. Soc. 17 (4): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05517-170455.
Forsyth, T. 2013. “Community-based adaptation: A review of past and future challenges.” Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Clim. Change 4 (5): 439–446. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.231.
Fremstad, S., H. Brown, and J. H. Rho. 2020. Meatpacking workers are a diverse group who need better protections. Washington, DC: Center of Economic and Policy Research.
Geels, F. W. 2011. “The multi-level perspective on sustainability transitions: Responses to seven criticisms.” Environ. Innovation Societal Transitions 1 (1): 24–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2011.02.002.
Gerzhova, N., P. Blanchet, C. Dagenais, S. Ménard, and J. Côté. 2020. “Flammability characteristics of green roofs.” Buildings 10 (7): 126. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings10070126.
Gibson, C. B., L. L. Gilson, T. L. Griffith, and T. A. O’Neill. 2023. “Should employees be required to return to the office?” Organ. Dyn. 52 (2): 100981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2023.100981.
Gill, J. C., and B. D. Malamud. 2014. “Reviewing and visualizing the interactions of natural hazards.” Rev. Geophys. 52 (4): 680–722. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013RG000445.
Goldberg, S. B. 2021. Education in a pandemic: The disparate impacts of COVID-19 on America’s students, 1–61. Washington, DC: Dept. of Education Office for Civil Rights.
Grabell, M. 2020. The plot to keep meatpacking plants open during COVID-19. New York: ProPublica.
Graham, A. 2020. Back to school, finally. Marshalltown, IA: Tama-Toledo News Chronicle.
Haigh, R., and D. Amaratunga. 2010. “An integrative review of the built environment discipline’s role in the development of society’s resilience to disasters.” Int. J. Disaster Resil. Built Environ. 1 (1): 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/17595901011026454.
Haines, M. 2020. Hurricane Laura victims struggle to find housing amid pandemic. Washington, DC: Voice of America.
Hamin, E., et al. 2018. “Pathways to coastal resiliency: The adaptive gradients framework.” Sustainability 10 (8): 2629. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082629.
Hannon, T. 2020. “Iowa Derecho storm wreaks havoc on school startup.” School Transportation News. Accessed October 17, 2023. https://stnonline.com/news/iowa-derecho-storm-wreaks-havoc-on-school-startup/.
Hans de Haan, J., and J. Rotmans. 2011. “Patterns in transitions: Understanding complex chains of change.” Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 78 (1): 90–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2010.10.008.
Hémond, Y., and B. Robert. 2012. “Evaluation of state of resilience for a critical infrastructure in a context of interdependencies.” Int. J. Crit. Infrastruct. 8 (2–3): 95. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCIS.2012.049030.
Hill, S., N. S. Hutton, J. L. Whytlaw, J.-E. Yusuf, J. G. Behr, E. Landaeta, and R. Diaz. 2021. “Changing logistics of evacuation transportation in hazardous settings during COVID-19.” Nat. Hazards Rev. 22 (3): 04021029. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000506.
Holahan, C. 2021. “I’m waiting for Hurricane Ida with COVID-19.” The Atlantic. Accessed October 17, 2023. https://scribd.com/article/522232586/I-m-Waiting-For-Hurricane-Ida-With-Covid-19.
Hölscher, K., J. M. Wittmayer, and D. Loorbach. 2018. “Transition versus transformation: What’s the difference?” Environ. Innov. Societal Transitions 27 (3): 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2017.10.007.
Holt, T. 2020. Cedar rapids school district seeing increase in need at student internet hubs. Cedar Rapids, IA: Cedar Rapids Gazette.
Honey-Roses, J., et al. 2020. “The impact of COVID-19 on public space: A review of the emerging questions.” Preprint, submitted April 21, 2020. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/rf7xa.
Hutter, G. 2013. “Organizing social resilience in the context of natural hazards: A research note.” Nat. Hazards 67 (1): 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-010-9705-4.
ICC (International Code Council). 2018. 2018 international building code illustrated handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2012. “Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation.” In Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation, edited by C. B. Field et al., 109–230. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2014. Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, edited by C. B. Field et al., 1–44. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Joens, P. 2021. “Iowa’s second derecho in two years spawned 43 tornadoes. Here’s how the storm compared to others.” The Des Moines Register. Accessed October 17, 2023. https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/weather/2021/12/23/43-iowa-tornadoes-confirmed-historic-december-serial-derecho-2021/8995299002/.
Kappes, M., M. Keiler, and T. Glade. 2010. “From single- to multi-hazard risk analyses: A concept addressing emerging challenges.” In Mountains risks: Bringing science to society, edited by J.-P. Malet, T. Glade, and N. Casagli, 351–356. Strassbourg, France: CERG Editions.
Karlin, S., and T. McAuley. 2020. “How is Louisiana safely evacuating people for Hurricane Laura amid coronavirus? Hotels, buses, more.” The Advocate. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://www.theadvocate.com/baton_rouge/news/coronavirus/how-is-louisiana-safely-evacuating-people-for-hurricane-laura-amid-coronavirus-hotels-buses-more/article_ca25c9c8-e7b3-11ea-b5f2-bb608c40bf1a.html.
KCRG News Staff. 2020. Cedar rapids schools names September 21 as start date after Derecho. Cedar Rapids, IA: KCRG-TV.
Kennedy, A. I., A. M. Mejía-Rodríguez, and A. Strello. 2022. “Inequality in remote learning quality during COVID-19: Student perspectives and mitigating factors.” Large-Scale Assess. Educ. 10 (1): 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-022-00143-7.
King, G. 2020. “Delayed by derecho, school starts in Cedar Rapids.” The Gazette. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://www.thegazette.com/education/delayed-by-derecho-school-starts-in-cedar-rapids/.
Koohsari, M. J., G. R. McCormack, T. Nakaya, A. Yasunaga, D. Fuller, Y. Nagai, and K. Oka. 2023. “The Metaverse, the built environment, and public health: Opportunities and uncertainties.” J. Med. Internet Res. 25 (Jun): e43549. https://doi.org/10.2196/43549.
Krebs, N. 2021. COVID cases in meatpacking plants impacted workers and their rural communities. Washington, DC: National Public Radio.
Kruczkiewicz, A., J. Klopp, J. Fisher, S. Mason, S. McClain, N. M. Sheekh, R. Moss, R. M. Parks, and C. Braneon. 2021. “Opinion: Compound risks and complex emergencies require new approaches to preparedness.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 118 (19): 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2106795118.
Lachman, D. A. 2013. “A survey and review of approaches to study transitions.” Energy Policy 58 (Jul): 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.03.013.
Leonard, M., S. Westra, A. Phatak, M. Lambert, B. van den Hurk, K. Mcinnes, J. Risbey, S. Schuster, D. Jakob, and M. Stafford-Smith. 2014. “A compound event framework for understanding extreme impacts.” Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Clim. Change 5 (1): 113–128. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.252.
Lerner, M. 2021. A home of the future, shaped by the coronavirus pandemic. Washington, DC: The Washington Post.
Lochhead, I., and N. Hedley. 2019. “Mixed reality emergency management: Bringing virtual evacuation simulations into real-world built environments.” Int. J. Digital Earth 12 (2): 190–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2018.1425489.
Loorbach, D., N. Frantzeskaki, and F. Avelino. 2017. “Sustainability transitions research: Transforming science and practice for societal change.” Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 42 (Oct): 599–626. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102014-021340.
Mahima, M., R. Shanthi Priya, P. Rajagopal, and C. Pradeepa. 2022. “Impact of Covid-19 on the built environment.” Front. Eng. Built Environ. 2 (2): 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1108/FEBE-09-2021-0040.
Malekpour, S., W. E. Walker, F. J. de Haan, N. Frantzeskaki, and V. A. Marchau. 2020. “Bridging decision making under deep uncertainty (DMDU) and transition management (TM) to improve strategic planning for sustainable development.” Environ. Sci. Policy 107 (May): 158–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2020.03.002.
Maru, Y. T., M. Stafford Smith, A. Sparrow, P. F. Pinho, and O. P. Dube. 2014. “A linked vulnerability and resilience framework for adaptation pathways in remote disadvantaged communities.” Global Environ. Change 28 (Sep): 337–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.12.007.
McCullough, J., and J. P. Garnham. 2020. Hurricane Laura causes Texas evacuations, sheltering during pandemic. Austin, TX: The Texas Tribune.
Megahed, N. A., and E. M. Ghoneim. 2020. “Antivirus-built environment: Lessons learned from Covid-19 pandemic.” Sustainable Cities Soc. 61 (Jun): 102350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102350.
Mendonça, D., I. Amorim, and M. Kagohara. 2019. “An historical perspective on community resilience: The case of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 34 (Mar): 363–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.12.006.
Mendonça, D., and W. Wallace. 2004. “Studying organizationally-situated improvisation in response to extreme events.” Int. J. Mass Emerg. Disasters 22 (2): 5–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/028072700402200201.
Mendonça, D., and W. A. Wallace. 2006. “Impacts of the 2001 World Trade Center attack on New York City critical infrastructures.” J. Infrastruct. Syst. 12 (4): 260–270. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0342(2006)12:4(260).
Mouratidis, K., and S. Peters. 2022. “COVID-19 impact on teleactivities: Role of built environment and implications for mobility.” Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 158 (Apr): 251–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2022.03.007.
Nakamura, A., and M. Kikuchi. 2011. “What we know, and what we have not yet learned: Triple disasters and the Fukushima nuclear fiasco in Japan.” Public Admin. Rev. 71 (6): 893–899. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2011.02437.x.
Narea, N. 2020. “Why meatpacking plants have become coronavirus hot spots.” Vox. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://www.vox.com/2020/5/19/21259000/meat-shortage-meatpacking-plants-coronavirus.
Natario, N. 2020. “Hurricane Laura: Galveston man says he fears COVID-19 more than hurricane landfall.” ABC13 Houston. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://abc13.com/hurricane-laura-galveston-man-fears-coronavirus-more-pandemic-and-a/6388667/.
National Academies. 2022. Resilience for compounding and cascading events. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
National Education Association. 2021. What’s next?: How the pandemic will change the future of schools. Philadelphia, PA: National Education Association.
Nohrstedt, D., J. Hileman, M. Mazzoleni, G. Di Baldassarre, and C. F. Parker. 2022. “Exploring disaster impacts on adaptation actions in 549 cities worldwide.” Nat. Commun. 13 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-31059-z.
Ouyang, M. 2014. “Review on modeling and simulation of interdependent critical infrastructure systems.” Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 121 (Jan): 43–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2013.06.040.
Parker, K., J. Menasce Horowitz, and R. Minkin. 2020. How coronavirus has changed the way Americans work. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
Parks, V. 2017. “American Dunkirk: The waterborne evacuation of Manhattan on 9/11.” Soc. Forces 96 (1): e8. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sox019.
Pescaroli, G., and D. Alexander. 2018. “Understanding compound, interconnected, interacting, and cascading risks: A holistic framework.” Risk Anal. 38 (11): 2245–2257. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13128.
Piecuch, C. G., P. Huybers, C. C. Hay, A. C. Kemp, C. M. Little, J. X. Mitrovica, R. M. Ponte, and M. P. Tingley. 2018. “Origin of spatial variation in US East Coast sea-level trends during 1900-2017.” Nature 564 (7736): 400–404. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0787-6.
Preidt, R. 2021. Meatpacking plants accounted for 334,000 US COVID cases. New York: WebMD.
Ramirez, R. 2002. This 100% solar community endured Hurricane Ian with no loss of power and minimal damage. New York: Cable News Network.
Ridder, N. N., A. J. Pitman, and A. M. Ukkola. 2022. “High impact compound events in Australia.” Weather Clim. Extremes 36 (2): 100457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2022.100457.
Rinaldi, S. M., J. P. Peerenboom, and T. K. Kelly. 2001. “Identifying, understanding, and analyzing critical infrastructure interdependencies.” IEEE Control Syst. Mag. 21 (6): 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1109/37.969131.
Rogers, K. 2021. Iowa schools see first enrollment decline in a decade with no way to account for where all students are. Cedar Rapids, IA: KCRG-TV9.
Rotmans, J., and D. Loorbach. 2009. “Complexity and transition management.” J. Ind. Ecol. 13 (2): 184–196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2009.00116.x.
Salama, A. M. 2020. “Coronavirus questions that will not go away: Interrogating urban and socio-spatial implications of COVID-19 measures.” Emerald Open Res. 2 (Jun): 14. https://doi.org/10.35241/emeraldopenres.13561.1.
Salas, R. N., J. M. Shultz, and C. G. Solomon. 2020. “The climate crisis and Covid-19–A major threat to the pandemic response.” N. Engl. J. Med. 383 (11): e70. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2022011.
Saucedo, E. 2021. Distance learning & the digital divide: Opportunity gap grows for California K-12 students. Sacramento, CA: California Budget and Policy Center.
Scholz, C., S. Schauer, and M. Latzenhofer. 2022. “The emergence of new critical infrastructures. Is the COVID-19 pandemic shifting our perspective on what critical infrastructures are?” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 83 (2): 103419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103419.
Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis. 2022. ‘Now to get rid of those Pesky Health Departments!’: How the trump administration Helped the meatpacking industry block pandemic worker protections. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis, United States House of Representatives. 2021. “Coronavirus infections and deaths among meatpacking workers at top five companies were nearly three times higher than previous estimates.” Memorandum. Accessed October 27, 2021. https://kdvr.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2021/10/2021.10.27-Meatpacking-Report.Final_Congress.pdf.
Shaffer, E. 2021. “Deadly Tornadoes impact processor communities.” Meat+Poultry. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://www.meatpoultry.com/articles/25917-deadly-tornadoes-impact-processor-communities.
Sherman, M., L. Berrang-Ford, S. Lwasa, J. Ford, D. B. Namanya, A. Llanos-Cuentas, M. Maillet, S. Harper, and R. Ihacc. 2016. “Drawing the line between adaptation and development: A systematic literature review of planned adaptation in developing countries.” Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Clim. Change 7 (5): 707–726. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.416.
Shi, L., et al. 2016. “Roadmap towards justice in urban climate adaptation research.” Nat. Clim. Change 6 (2): 131–137. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2841.
Smit, B., and J. Wandel. 2006. “Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability.” Global Environ. Change 16 (3): 282–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.008.
Smite, D., N. B. Moe, J. Hildrum, J. G. Huerta, and D. Mendez. 2023. “Work-from-home is here to stay: Call for flexibility in post-pandemic work policies.” J. Syst. Software 195 (Apr): 111552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2022.111552.
Steinberg, L. J., V. Basolo, R. Burby, J. N. Levine, and A. Maria Cruz. 2004. “Joint seismic and technological disasters: Possible impacts and community preparedness in an urban setting.” Nat. Hazards Rev. 5 (4): 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2004)5:4(159).
Switzer, F. S., J. Ligato, and K. Piratla. 2022. “Interdependent infrastructures as a multiteam system: Enhancing resilience.” J. Infrastruct. Syst. 28 (4): 04022026. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IS.1943-555X.0000709.
Tarvainen, T., J. Jarva, and S. Greiving. 2006. “Spatial pattern of hazards and hazard interactions in Europe.” Spec. Pap. Geol. Surv. Finland 42 (42): 83–91.
Tilloy, A., B. D. Malamud, and A. Joly-Laugel. 2022. “A methodology for the spatiotemporal identification of compound hazards: Wind and precipitation extremes in Great Britain (1979-2019).” Earth Syst. Dyn. 13 (2): 993–1020. https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-993-2022.
Tilloy, A., B. D. Malamud, H. Winter, and A. Joly-Laugel. 2019. “A review of quantification methodologies for multi-hazard interrelationships.” Earth Sci. Rev. 196 (May): 102881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102881.
Trump, D. J. 2020. “Executive order on delegating authority under the DPA with respect to food supply chain resources during the national emergency caused by the outbreak of COVID-19.” The White House, Land & Agriculture. Accessed April 28, 2020. https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-delegating-authority-dpa-respect-food-supply-chain-resources-national-emergency-caused-outbreak-covid-19/.
Tyler, S., and M. Moench. 2012. “A framework for urban climate resilience.” Clim. Dev. 4 (4): 311–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2012.745389.
USA Facts. 2022. “Louisiana coronavirus cases and deaths | USAFacts.” Accessed October 17, 2023. https://usafacts.org/visualizations/coronavirus-covid-19-spread-map/state/louisiana.
US Department of Education and National Center for Education Statistics. 2022. “Fast facts: Distance learning.” Accessed October 17, 2023. https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=79.
Wahlund, M., and J. Palm. 2022. “The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review.” Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 87 (Jun): 102482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.102482.
Webb, G. R. 2004. “Role improvising during crisis situations.” Int. J. Emergency Manage. 2 (1–2): 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEM.2004.005230.
Wilson, G. A. 2012. “Community resilience, globalization, and transitional pathways of decision-making.” Geoforum 43 (6): 1218–1231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2012.03.008.
Woods, D. D. 2012. “Essential characteristics of resilience.” In Resilience engineering: Concepts and precepts, edited by E. Hollnagel, D. Woods, and N. Leveson, 21–34. Aldershot, UK: Ashagate.
Wright, R., J. Byard, C. Colten, T. Kijewski-Correa, J. M. Shepherd, J. Shultz, and C. Willis. 2023. “Compounding disasters in Gulf Coast communities, 2020-2021: Impacts, findings, and lessons learned.” Accessed October 17, 2023. https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/compounding-disasters-in-gulf-coast-communities-2020-2021-impacts-findings-and-lessons-learned.
Yang, K., R. A. Davidson, H. Vergara, R. L. Kolar, K. M. Dresback, B. A. Colle, B. Blanton, T. Wachtendorf, J. Trivedi, and L. K. Nozick. 2019. “Incorporating inland flooding into hurricane evacuation decision support modeling.” Nat. Hazards 96 (2): 857–878. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-019-03573-9.
Zhu, Y., and N. Li. 2021. “Virtual and augmented reality technologies for emergency management in the built environments: A state-of-the-art review.” J. Saf. Sci. Resilience 2 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnlssr.2020.11.004.
Zscheischler, J., et al. 2020. “A typology of compound weather and climate events.” Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 1 (7): 333–347. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0060-z.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Infrastructure Systems
Volume 30 • Issue 1 • March 2024
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Dec 13, 2022
Accepted: Sep 24, 2023
Published online: Nov 21, 2023
Published in print: Mar 1, 2024
Discussion open until: Apr 21, 2024
ASCE Technical Topics:
- Adaptive systems
- Buildings
- Business management
- Disaster risk management
- Disasters and hazards
- Engineering fundamentals
- Epidemic and pandemic
- Hazardous substances
- Hybrid methods
- Man-made disasters
- Methodology (by type)
- Mitigation and remediation
- Practice and Profession
- Protective structures
- Public administration
- Public health and safety
- Social factors
- Structural engineering
- Structures (by type)
- Systems engineering
- Systems management
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.