A Critical Assessment of the Effect of Initial Fabric on Key Small-Strain Design Parameters of Slurry-Deposited Silts and Sands
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 149, Issue 7
Abstract
Whereas moist-tamped specimens of silts and sands are most used in engineering practice to characterize tailings, offshore sediments, and fluvial/alluvial deposits, design parameters derived from moist-tamping data sets can be significantly different from those obtained from slurry or underwater deposition. This study shows that moist-tamped silty and sandy specimens may exhibit phase transformation at stress ratios that are 25% to 50% lower than those observed for slurry-deposited specimens. Conversely, the small-strain stiffness of the moist-tamped specimens tested can be 50% higher than those from slurry deposition. With tailings dams’ performance receiving increased worldwide attention due to recent dam failures in several parts of the world, this study provides new, specific, and concerning insights about the crucial impact that the selection of moist tamping can have on design parameters. More realistic and rigorous laboratory testing procedures involving tailings remain a key requirement for engineering assessments of tailings behavior. A novel slurry-deposition setup is presented that allows underwater reconstitution of silts, sands, and their mixtures, yielding high-quality uniform specimens. Systematic uniformity checks, which are mandatory to avoid segregation of silty materials, are described. A detailed analysis of typical errors affecting initial void ratio evaluation is also presented to ensure that comparisons between different methods are done with the highest degree of confidence possible.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
Acknowledgments
This Ph.D. research and the lead author were supported by a Skempton Scholarship from the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Imperial College London. The authors would like to thank Mr. S. Karapanagiotidis for the technical support in manufacturing the equipment.
References
Ahmadi Naghadeh, R., and N. K. Toker. 2019. “Exponential equation for predicting shear strength envelope of unsaturated soils.” Int. J. Geomech. 19 (7): 04019061. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001435.
ASTM. 2016. Standard test methods for minimum index density and unit weight of soils and calculation of relative density. ASTM D4254-16. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2020. Standard test methods for one-dimensional consolidation properties of soils using incremental loading. ASTM D2435/D2435M-11. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2021. Standard test methods for particle-size distribution (gradation) of soils using sieve analysis. ASTM D6913/D6913M-17. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Been, K., M. G. Jefferies, and J. Hachey. 1991. “The critical state of sands.” Géotechnique 41 (3): 365–381. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1991.41.3.365.
Bradshaw, A. S., and C. D. P. Baxter. 2007. “Sample preparation of silts for liquefaction testing.” Geotech. Test. J. 30 (4): 324–332. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ100206.
Carraro, J. A. H., and M. Prezzi. 2007. “A new slurry-based method of preparation of specimens of sand containing fines.” Geotech. Test. J. 31 (1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ100207.
Chang, N., G. Heymann, and C. Clayton. 2011. “The effect of fabric on the behaviour of gold tailings.” Géotechnique 61 (3): 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.9.P.066.
Corrêa, M. M., and W. L. Oliveira Filho. 2019. “Impact of methods used to reconstitute tailings specimens on the liquefaction potential assessment of tailings dams.” Int. Eng. J. 72 (3): 507–513. https://doi.org/10.1590/0370-44672018720164.
Dominguez-Quintans, C. 2022. “Static and cyclic characterisation of sandy and silty soils deposited underwater.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London.
Dominguez-Quintans, C., S. Quinteros, J. A. H. Carraro, L. Zdravkovic, and R. J. Jardine. 2019. “Quality assessment of a new in-mould slurry deposition method for triaxial specimen reconstitution of clean and silty sands.” In Proc., E3S Web of Conf., 02010. London: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20199202010.
Donahue, J., J. Bray, and M. Riemer. 2007. “Liquefaction testing of fine-grained soil prepared using slurry deposition.” In Proc., 4th Int. Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering. London: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
Emery, J. J., W. L. Finn, and K. W. Lee. 1973. “Uniformity of saturated sand specimens.” In Evaluation of relative density and its role in geotechnical projects involving cohesionless soils. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Frost, J. D., and J. Y. Park. 2003. “A critical assessment of the moist tamping technique.” Geotech. Test. J. 26 (1): 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11108J.
Gao, Z., J. Zhao, X. S. Li, and Y. F. Dafalias. 2014. “A critical state sand plasticity model accounting for fabric evolution.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 38 (4): 370–390. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.2211.
Ghionna, V. N., and D. Porcino. 2006. “Liquefaction resistance of undisturbed and reconstituted samples of a natural coarse sand from undrained cyclic triaxial tests.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (2): 194–202. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:2(194).
Høeg, K., R. Dyvik, and G. Sandbækken. 2000. “Strength of undisturbed versus reconstituted silt and silty sand specimens.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 126 (7): 606–617. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2000)126:7(606).
Jefferies, M., and K. Been. 2006. Soil liquefaction: A critical state approach. London: CRC Press.
Jefferies, M., N. R. Morgenstern, D. Van Zyl, and J. Wates. 2019. Report on NTSF embankment failure. Springside, Australia: Cadia Valley Operations for Ashurst Australia.
Knudsen, S., T. Lunne, S. Quinteros, T. Vestgården, L. Krog, and R. Bøgelund-Pedersen. 2019. “Effect of reconstitution techniques on the triaxial stress-strength behaviour of a very dense sand.” In Proc.,of the XVII ECSMGE-2019. London: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. https://doi.org/10.32075/17ECSMGE-2019-0575.
Krage, C. P., A. B. Price, W. G. Lukas, J. T. DeJong, D. J. DeGroot, and R. W. Boulanger. 2020. “Slurry deposition method of low-plasticity intermediate soils for laboratory element testing.” Geotech. Test. J. 43 (5): 117. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20180117.
Kuerbis, R., and Y. P. Vaid. 1988. “Sand sample preparation-the slurry deposition method.” Soils Found. 28 (4): 107–118. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.28.4_107.
Ladd, R. S. 1974. “Specimen preparation and liquefaction of sands.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 100 (Feb): 10857. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000117.
Lade, P. V. 2016. Triaxial testing of soils. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Li, W., and M. R. Coop. 2019. “Mechanical behaviour of Panzhihua iron tailings.” Can. Geotech. J. 56 (3): 420–435. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2018-0032.
Li, X. S., and Y. F. Dafalias. 2012. “Anisotropic critical state theory: Role of fabric.” J. Eng. Mech. 138 (3): 263–275. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000324.
Loukidis, D., and R. Salgado. 2009. “Modeling sand response using two-surface plasticity.” Comput. Geotech. 36 (1–2): 166–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2008.02.009.
Mitchell, J. K., J. M. Chatoian, and G. C. Carpenter. 1976. The influence of fabric on the liquefaction behaviour of sand. Vicksburg, MS: Engineer Research and Development Center.
Morgenstern, N. R., S. G. Vick, C. B. Viotti, and B. D. Watts. 2016. Fundão tailings dam review panel report on the immediate causes of the failure of the Fundão dam. New York: Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton.
Muir Wood, D. 2012. “Heterogeneity and soil element testing.” Géotech. Lett. 2 (3): 101–106. https://doi.org/10.1680/geolett.12.00019.
Oda, M., I. Koishikawa, and T. Higuchi. 1978. “Experimental study of anisotropic shear strength of sand by plane strain test.” Soils Found. 18 (1): 25–38. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.18.25.
Papadimitriou, A. G., Y. F. Dafalias, and M. Yoshimine. 2005. “Plasticity modeling of the effect of sample preparation method on sand response.” Soils Found. 45 (2): 109–123. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.45.2_109.
Quinteros, V. S. 2022. “On the initial fabric and triaxial behaviour of an undisturbed and reconstituted fluvial sand.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London.
Quinteros, V. S., and J. A. H. Carraro. 2023. “The initial fabric of undisturbed and reconstituted fluvial sand.” Géotechnique 73 (1): 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.20.P.121.
Reid, D., and R. Fanni. 2020. “A comparison of intact and reconstituted samples of a silt tailings.” Géotechnique 72 (2): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.20.P.020.
Robertson, P. K., L. De Melo, D. J. Williams, and G. W. Wilson. 2019. Report of the expert panel on the technical causes of the failure of Feijão Dam I. Washington, DC: USDA.
Shuttle, D. A. 2006. “Can the effect of sand fabric on plastic hardening be determined using a self-bored pressuremeter?” Can. Geotech. J. 43 (7): 659–673. https://doi.org/10.1139/t06-033.
Shuttle, D. A., and J. Cunning. 2007. “Liquefaction potential of silts from CPTu.” Can. Geotech. J. 44 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1139/t06-086.
Sladen, J. A., and G. Handford. 1987. “A potential systematic error in laboratory testing of very loose sands.” Can. Geotech. J. 24 (3): 462–466. https://doi.org/10.1139/t87-058.
Sze, H. Y., and J. Yang. 2014. “Failure modes of sand in undrained cyclic loading: Impact of sample preparation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (1): 152–169. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000971.
Takahashi, A., and R. J. Jardine. 2007. “Assessment of standard research sand for laboratory testing.” Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 40 (1): 93–103. https://doi.org/10.1144/1470-9236/06-017.
Tastan, E. O., and J. A. H. Carraro. 2013. “A new slurry-based method of preparation of hollow cylinder specimens of clean and silty sands.” Geotech. Test. J. 36 (6): 20130056. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20130056.
Thomson, P. R., and R. C. K. Wong. 2008. “Specimen nonuniformities in water-pluviated and moist-tamped sands under undrained triaxial compression and extension.” Can. Geotech. J. 45 (7): 939–956. https://doi.org/10.1139/T08-023.
Tsukamoto, Y., K. Ishihara, and T. Nonaka. 1998. “Undrained deformation and strength characteristics of soils from reclaimed deposits in Kobe.” Soils Found. 38 (Sep): 47–55. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.38.Special_47.
Vaid, Y. P., and S. Sivathayalan. 1997. “Errors in estimates of void ratio of laboratory sand specimens.” Can. Geotech. J. 33 (6): 1017–1020. https://doi.org/10.1139/t96-128.
Vaid, Y. P., S. Sivathayalan, and D. Stedman. 1999. “Influence of specimen-reconstituting method on the undrained response of sand.” Geotech. Test. J. 22 (3): 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11110J.
Verdugo, R., and K. Ishihara. 1996. “The steady state of sandy soils.” Soils Found. 36 (2): 81–91. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.36.2_81.
Wang, S., R. Luna, and R. W. Stephenson. 2011. “A slurry consolidation approach to reconstitute low-plasticity silt specimens for laboratory triaxial testing.” Geotech. Test. J. 34 (4): 288–296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-016-0199-9.
Wichtmann, T., and T. Triantafyllidis. 2015. “An experimental database for the development, calibration and verification of constitutive models for sand with focus to cyclic loading: Part I—Tests with monotonic loading and stress cycles.” Acta Geotech. 11 (4): 739–761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-015-0402-z.
Woo, S. I., and R. Salgado. 2015. “Bounding surface modeling of sand with consideration of fabric and its evolution during monotonic shearing.” Int. J. Solids Struct. 63 (Sep): 277–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2015.03.005.
Wood, F. M., J. A. Yamamuro, and P. V. Lade. 2008. “Effect of depositional method on the undrained response of silty sand.” Can. Geotech. J. 45 (11): 1525–1537. https://doi.org/10.1139/T08-079.
Xu, L., and M. R. Coop. 2017. “The mechanics of a saturated silty loess with a transitional mode.” Géotechnique 67 (7): 581–596. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.16.P.128.
Yang, Z. X., X. S. Li, and J. Yang. 2008. “Quantifying and modelling fabric anisotropy of granular soils.” Géotechnique 58 (4): 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2008.58.4.237.
Zheng, W., and D. Tannant. 2016. “Frac sand crushing characteristics and morphology changes under high compressive stress and implications for sand pack permeability.” Can. Geotech. J. 53 (9): 1412–1423. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0045.
Zlatovic, S., and K. Ishihara. 1997. “Normalized behaviour of very loose non-plastic soils: Effects of fabric.” Soils Found. 37 (4): 47–56. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.37.4_47.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 149 • Issue 7 • July 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Sep 3, 2022
Accepted: Mar 2, 2023
Published online: Apr 27, 2023
Published in print: Jul 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Sep 27, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Hongmei Gao, Jinjing Sun, Armin W. Stuedlein, Shuaixue Li, Zhihua Wang, Lu Liu, Xinlei Zhang, Flowability of Saturated Sands under Cyclic Loading and the Viscous Fluid Flow Failure Criterion for Liquefaction Triggering, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 10.1061/JGGEFK.GTENG-11872, 150, 1, (2024).
- Jiarui Chen, Brahian Roman, Alejandro Martinez, Benjamin Gallagher, Centrifuge Modeling of Cone Penetration Testing and Dewatering of Coal Combustion Product Deposits, Geo-Congress 2024, 10.1061/9780784485309.044, (425-434), (2024).