Spatial Memory of BIM and Virtual Reality: Mental Mapping Study
Publication: Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
Volume 149, Issue 7
Abstract
Acquiring accurate spatial memory is critical to many architecture, engineering, construction, and facilities maintenance (AECFM) tasks. The literature has recognized that spatial memory (i.e., the memory of locations and spatial relationships) quality can be affected primarily by visualization methods, i.e., the formats in which spatial information is visualized and presented. In addition to traditional two-dimensional (2D) drawings, emerging visualization methods, such as building information modeling (BIM)-based models and virtual reality (VR), provide more options to visualize complex spatial information in an immersive and interactive way. Although it is well recognized that new visualization methods can benefit performance in many spatial tasks (i.e., tasks that rely or partially rely on spatial memory), there is a lack of explicit evidence about how they affect spatial memory development. Many studies used spatial task performance and spatial memory quality interchangeably, which actually are distinct. This paper presents findings of a mental mapping method (i.e., hand sketching the memorized locations and spatial relationships) to directly measure a person’s spatial memory quality of different building components and layouts. First, a human-subject experiment () was performed in which participants were instructed to review a building model with varying visualization methods [2D, BIM-based three-dimensional (3D), and VR]. Then participants were required to sketch the memorized building landmarks and layouts as an explicit measure of the spatial memory quality, followed by an inspection task in the real building. The result showed a significant impact of visualization methods on the quality of spatial memory, which was not correlated with the inspection performance. The findings suggest that explicit mental mapping measures instead of final task performance are needed for evaluating spatial memory in AECFM tasks.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, or code generated or used during the study are available from the corresponding author by request.
Acknowledgments
This material is supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant 1937878 and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) under Grant 60NANB18D152. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not reflect the views of the NSF and NIST.
References
Alruwaythi, O., and P. Goodrum. 2019. “A difference in perspective: Impact of different formats of engineering information and spatial cognition on craft-worker eye-gaze patterns.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage. 145 (11): 04019065. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001706.
Bacim, F., E. Ragan, S. Scerbo, N. F. Polys, M. Setareh, and B. D. Jones. 2013. “The effects of display fidelity, visual complexity, and task scope on spatial understanding of 3D graphs.” In Proc., Graphics Interface 2013, 25–32. Mississauga, Canada: Canadian Information Processing Society.
Baddeley, A. 1996. “The fractionation of working memory.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93 (24): 13468–13472. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.24.13468.
Bawden, D., C. Holtham, and N. Courtney. 1999. “Perspectives on information overload.” In Proc., Aslib, 249–255. New York: MCB Univ. Press.
Bell, S., and J. Archibald. 2011. “Sketch mapping and geographie knowledge: What role for drawing ability?” In Proc., Understanding and Processing Sketch Maps@ COSIT, 1–10. Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press.
Bliss, J. P., P. D. Tidwell, and M. A. Guest. 1997. “The effectiveness of virtual reality for administering spatial navigation training to firefighters.” Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6 (1): 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1162/pres.1997.6.1.73.
Bunch, R. L., and R. E. Lloyd. 2006. “The cognitive load of geographic information.” Prof. Geogr. 58 (2): 209–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9272.2006.00527.x.
Cash, P., and A. Maier. 2021. “Understanding representation: Contrasting gesture and sketching in design through dual-process theory.” Des. Stud. 73 (Mar): 100992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2021.100992.
Cockburn, A. 2004. “Revisiting 2D vs 3D implications on spatial memory.” In Proc., 5th Conf. on Australasian User Interface-Volume 28, 25–31. Sydney, Austrilia: Australian Computer Society.
Cockburn, A., and B. McKenzie. 2002. “Evaluating the effectiveness of spatial memory in 2D and 3D physical and virtual environments.” In Proc., SIGCHI Conf. on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 203–210. New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
Dadi, G. B., P. M. Goodrum, T. R. B. Taylor, and C. M. Carswell. 2014a. “Cognitive workload demands using 2D and 3D spatial engineering information formats.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage. 140 (5): 04014001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000827.
Dadi, G. B., P. M. Goodrum, T. R. B. Taylor, and W. F. Maloney. 2014b. “Effectiveness of communication of spatial engineering information through 3D CAD and 3D printed models.” Visual. Eng. 2 (1): 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40327-014-0009-8.
Dünser, A., K. Steinbügl, H. Kaufmann, and J. Glück. 2006. “Virtual and augmented reality as spatial ability training tools.” In Proc., 7th ACM SIGCHI New Zealand Chapter’s International Conference On Computer-Human Interaction: Design Centered HCI, 125–132. New York: ACM.
Edmunds, A., and A. Morris. 2000. “The problem of information overload in business organisations: A review of the literature.” Int. J. Inf. Manage. 20 (1): 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0268-4012(99)00051-1.
Endsley, M. R., and M. D. Rodgers. 1996. “Attention distribution and situation awareness in air traffic control.” In Proc., Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 82–85. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.
Eppler, M. J., and J. Mengis. 2004. “The concept of information overload: A review of literature from organization science, accounting, marketing, MIS, and related disciplines.” Inf. Soc. 20 (5): 325–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240490507974.
Gardony, A. L., H. A. Taylor, and T. T. Brunyé. 2016. “Gardony map drawing analyzer: Software for quantitative analysis of sketch maps.” Behav. Res. Methods 48 (1): 151–177. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-014-0556-x.
Gieseking, J. J. 2013. “Where we go from here: The mental sketch mapping method and its analytic components.” Qual. Inq. 19 (9): 712–724. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800413500926.
Gould, P., and R. White. 2012. Mental maps. New York: Routledge.
Gudde, H. B., D. Griffiths, and K. R. Coventry. 2018. “The (spatial) memory game: Testing the relationship between spatial language, object knowledge, and spatial cognition.” J. Visualized Exp. 132 (Jun): e56495. https://doi.org/10.3791/56495.
Halligan, P. W., G. R. Fink, J. C. Marshall, and G. Vallar. 2003. “Spatial cognition: Evidence from visual neglect.” Trends Cognit. Sci. 7 (3): 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00032-9.
Hardison, D., M. Hallowell, R. Littlejohn, P. Goodrum, and S. Bhandari. 2022. “The influence of spatial cognition and variability of mental workload among construction hazard prevention through design tasks.” Saf. Sci. 152 (22): 105770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2022.105770.
Hayes, J., S. Dwivedi, R. Karthikeyan, M. Abujelala, J. Kang, Y. Ye, E. Du, and R. K. Mehta. 2022. “Identifying early predictors of learning in VR-based drone training.” In Proc., Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 1872–1876. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.
Heft, H. 1996. “The ecological approach to navigation: A Gibsonian perspective.” In The construction of cognitive maps, 105–132. Berlin: Springer.
Ingold, T. 2021. The perception of the environment: Essays on livelihood, dwelling and skill. New York: Routledge.
Iverson, G. L., and M. D. Franzen. 1994. “The recognition memory test, digit span, and Knox cube test as markers of malingered memory impairment.” Assessment 1 (4): 323–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/107319119400100401.
Juan, M.-C., M. Mendez-Lopez, E. Perez-Hernandez, and S. Albiol-Perez. 2014. “Augmented reality for the assessment of children’s spatial memory in real settings.” PLoS One 9 (12): e113751. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113751.
Keskin, M., K. Ooms, A. O. Dogru, and P. De Maeyer. 2018. “Digital sketch maps and eye tracking statistics as instruments to obtain insights into spatial cognition.” J. Eye Movement Res. 11 (3): 4. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.11.3.4.
Knight, M. J., and M. Tlauka. 2017. “Interactivity in map learning: The effect of cognitive load.” Spatial Cognit. Comput. 17 (3): 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/13875868.2016.1211661.
Laerd Statistics. 2018. “Pearson product-moment correlation.” Accessed April 10, 2022. https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/pearson-correlation-coefficient-statistical-guide.php.
Levene, H. 1960. “Contributions to probability and statistics.” In Essays in honor of Harold hotelling, 278–292. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.
Li, A. W. Y., and J. King. 2019. “Spatial memory and navigation in ageing: A systematic review of MRI and fMRI studies in healthy participants.” Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 103 (6): 33–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.05.005.
Lynch, K. 1964. The image of the city. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Moscovitch, M., L. Nadel, G. Winocur, A. Gilboa, and R. S. Rosenbaum. 2006. “The cognitive neuroscience of remote episodic, semantic and spatial memory.” Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 16 (2): 179–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2006.03.013.
Pan, Z., A. D. Cheok, H. Yang, J. Zhu, and J. Shi. 2006. “Virtual reality and mixed reality for virtual learning environments.” Comput. Graphics 30 (1): 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2005.10.004.
Pedro, J. 2007. Synchronizing spatial information in complex environments: A crossover of space syntax and spatial information visualization. Lisboa, Portugal: Instituto Superior Técnico.
Radulovic, J., V. Jovasevic, and M. A. Meyer. 2017. “Neurobiological mechanisms of state-dependent learning.” Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 45 (5): 92–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2017.05.013.
Ragan, E. D., D. A. Bowman, and K. J. Huber. 2012. “Supporting cognitive processing with spatial information presentations in virtual environments.” Virtual Reality 16 (4): 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-012-0211-8.
Ragan, E. D., R. Kopper, P. Schuchardt, and D. A. Bowman. 2013. “Studying the effects of stereo, head tracking, and field of regard on a small-scale spatial judgment task.” IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graphics 19 (5): 886–896. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2012.163.
Ragan, E. D., A. Sowndararajan, R. Kopper, and D. A. Bowman. 2010. “The effects of higher levels of immersion on procedure memorization performance and implications for educational virtual environments.” Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 19 (6): 527–543. https://doi.org/10.1162/pres_a_00016.
Ranganath, C., M. X. Cohen, C. Dam, and M. D’Esposito. 2004. “Inferior temporal, prefrontal, and hippocampal contributions to visual working memory maintenance and associative memory retrieval.” J. Neurosci. 24 (16): 3917–3925. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5053-03.2004.
Richards, D., and M. Taylor. 2015. “A comparison of learning gains when using a 2D simulation tool versus a 3D virtual world: An experiment to find the right representation involving the marginal value theorem.” Comput. Educ. 86 (Jun): 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.03.009.
Richardson, A. E., D. R. Montello, and M. Hegarty. 1999. “Spatial knowledge acquisition from maps and from navigation in real and virtual environments.” Memory Cognit. 27 (4): 741–750. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211566.
Sampaio, A. Z., M. M. Ferreira, D. P. Rosário, and O. P. Martins. 2010. “3D and VR models in civil engineering education: Construction, rehabilitation and maintenance.” Autom. Constr. 19 (7): 819–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2010.05.006.
Scholz, F. W., and M. A. Stephens. 1987. “K-sample Anderson–Darling tests.” J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 82 (399): 918–924. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1987.10478517.
Shi, Y., J. Du, and E. Ragan. 2020a. “Review visual attention and spatial memory in building inspection: Toward a cognition-driven information system.” Adv. Eng. Inf. 44 (Apr): 101061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aei.2020.101061.
Shi, Y., J. Du, and D. A. Worthy. 2020b. “The impact of engineering information formats on learning and execution of construction operations: A virtual reality pipe maintenance experiment.” Autom. Constr. 119 (Nov): 103367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103367.
Shi, Y., J. Du, and Q. Zhu. 2020c. “The impact of engineering information format on task performance: Gaze scanning pattern analysis.” Adv. Eng. Inf. 46 (Oct): 101167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aei.2020.101167.
Shi, Y., J. Kang, P. Xia, O. Tyagi, R. K. Mehta, and J. Du. 2021. “Spatial knowledge and firefighters’ wayfinding performance: A virtual reality search and rescue experiment.” Saf. Sci. 139 (Jul): 105231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105231.
Siegel, A. W., and S. H. White. 1975. “The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments.” Adv. Child Dev. Behav. 10 (Jan): 9–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2407(08)60007-5.
Sweany, J., P. Goodrum, and J. Miller. 2016. “Analysis of empirical data on the effects of the format of engineering deliverables on craft performance.” Autom. Constr. 69 (Jun): 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2016.05.017.
Tan, D. S., D. Gergle, P. G. Scupelli, and R. Pausch. 2004. “Physically large displays improve path integration in 3D virtual navigation tasks.” In Proc., SIGCHI Conf. on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 439–446. New York: ACM.
Tavanti, M., and M. Lind. 2001. “2D vs 3D, implications on spatial memory.” In Proc., IEEE Symp. on Information Visualization, 139–145. New York: IEEE.
Tolman, E. C. 1948. “Cognitive maps in rats and men.” Psychol. Rev. 55 (4): 189. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0061626.
Trumbo, J. 1998. “Spatial memory and design: A conceptual approach to the creation of navigable space in multimedia design.” Interactions 5 (4): 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1145/278465.278470.
Uttal, D. H. 2000. “Seeing the big picture: Map use and the development of spatial cognition.” Dev. Sci. 3 (3): 247–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7687.00119.
Vallat, R. 2018. “Pingouin: Statistics in Python.” J. Open Source Software 3 (31): 1026. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01026.
Verghote, A., S. Al-Haddad, P. Goodrum, and S. Van Emelen. 2019. “The effects of information format and spatial cognition on individual wayfinding performance.” Buildings 9 (2): 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings9020029.
von Stülpnagel, R., and M. C. Steffens. 2012. “Can active navigation be as good as driving? A comparison of spatial memory in drivers and backseat drivers.” J. Exp. Psychol.: Appl. 18 (2): 162. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027133.
von Stülpnagel, R., and M. C. Steffens. 2013. “Active route learning in virtual environments: Disentangling movement control from intention, instruction specificity, and navigation control.” Psychol. Res. 77 (5): 555–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-012-0451-y.
Wang, J., and A. Schwering. 2015. “Invariant spatial information in sketch maps—A study of survey sketch maps of urban areas.” J. Spatial Inf. Sci. 2015 (11): 31–52. https://doi.org/10.5311/JOSIS.2015.11.225.
Whyte, J., N. Bouchlaghem, A. Thorpe, and R. McCaffer. 2000. “From CAD to virtual reality: Modelling approaches, data exchange and interactive 3D building design tools.” Autom. Constr. 10 (1): 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-5805(99)00012-6.
Wood, D. 1973. The genesis of geographic knowledge: A real-time developmental study of adolescent images of novel environments. London: Clark Univ.
Yalcinkaya, M., and V. Singh. 2019. VisualCOBie for facilities management: A BIM integrated, visual search and information management platform for COBie extension. Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing.
Ye, Y., Y. Shi, and J. Du. 2022a. “Spatial memory of building layout via 2D, 3D, and virtual reality.” Comput. Civ. Eng. 2021 (1): 1293–1301. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784483893.158.
Ye, Y., Y. Shi, D. Srinivasan, and J. Du. 2022b. “Sensation transfer for immersive exoskeleton motor training: Implications of haptics and viewpoints.” Autom. Constr. 141 (Apr): 104411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104411.
Ye, Y., T. Zhou, and J. Du. 2023. Robot-assisted immersive kinematic experience transfer for welding training. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Yu, R., and J. Gero. 2017. “Exploring designers’ cognitive load when viewing different digital representations of spaces: A pilot study.” In Proc., Int. Conf. on Research into Design, 457–467. Berlin: Springer.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
Volume 149 • Issue 7 • July 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jun 16, 2022
Accepted: Feb 24, 2023
Published online: Apr 21, 2023
Published in print: Jul 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Sep 21, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Yang Ye, Thanakon Uthai, Pengxiang Xia, Tianyu Zhou, Jing Du, User Experience and Workload Evaluation in Robot-Assisted Virtual Reality Welding Training, Construction Research Congress 2024, 10.1061/9780784485293.011, (99-108), (2024).
- Fang Xu, Tianyu Zhou, Yang Ye, Jing Du, Augmented Telepresence: Enhancing Robot Arm Control with Mixed Reality for Dexterous Manipulation, Construction Research Congress 2024, 10.1061/9780784485262.074, (727-738), (2024).