New Methods for Arrival Time Determination in Bender Element Tests for Time-Lapsed Tomography
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 145, Issue 9
Abstract
This paper examines and reports on two new methods, i.e., the Stockwell transform based (ST) method and self-healing cross-correlation (SC) method, in determining the S-wave arrival time for bender element tests, especially for tomographic imaging. In the ST method, the Stockwell transform is first carried out to obtain a high-resolution time-frequency representation of the receiving signal; then, the energy in the frequencies around the resonant frequency is summed, followed calculation of the associated energy gradient. The maximum energy gradient is selected as the objective criterion to determine the arrival of the S-wave, since its arrival leads to a distinct amplitude increase and a notable change in the associated energy. The accuracy of this ST method is validated using both numerical and physical experiments. The ST method requires high computing power for signal processing; hence, the SC method is proposed to tackle this practical problem. Considering two consecutive measurements made by the same pair of bender elements in a time interval, subjected to only small changes in the stress states, both measurements should exhibit a similar waveform but with a minute time-shift. Therefore, the cross-correlation peak of the two consecutive measurements gives the travel time difference between them. The validity of the SC method is verified by a laboratory pile installation test equipped with a bender element sensing layer; and good agreement is found between the results obtained from the ST and SC methods. The strengths of these two methods enable us to objectively and automatically process the tremendous amount of bender element signals produced by the high-resolution time-lapsed tomographic images, as demonstrated by process monitoring of the pile installation.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Hong Kong Research Grants Council (Project No. T22-603/15N). The authors are grateful to the reviewers for their valuable comments.
References
Azadi, S., and A. A. Safavi. 2011. “S-transform based P-wave and S-wave arrival times measurements toward earthquake locating.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Control, Instrumentation and Automation, 241–246. New York: IEEE.
Blewett, J., I. J. Blewett, and P. K. Woodward. 1999. “Measurement of shear-wave velocity using phase-sensitive detection techniques.” Can. Geotech. J. 36 (5): 934–939. https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-051.
Camacho-Tauta, J., H. Alib, G. Cascante, and A. V. D. Fonseca. 2015. “Frequency domain method in bender element testing–experimental observations.” In Vol. 6 of Proc., 6th Int. Symp. on Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, edited by V. A. Rinaldi, M. E. Zeballos, J. J. Clariá, 398. Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press.
Cruse, T. A. 1968. “A direct formulation and numerical solution of the general transient elastodynamic problem.” J. Math. Anal. Appl. 22 (1): 244–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-247X(68)90171-6.
Da Fonseca, A. V., C. Ferreira, and M. Fahey. 2008. “A framework interpreting bender element tests, combining time-domain and frequency-domain methods.” Geotech. Test. J. 32 (2): 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ100974.
Dai, S., F. Wuttke, and J. C. Santamarina. 2013. “Coda wave analysis to monitor processes in soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139 (9): 1504–1511. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000872.
Fernandez, A. L. 2000. “Tomographic imaging the state of stress.” Ph.D. dissertation, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology.
Kaarsberg, E. A. 1975. “Elastic-wave velocity measurements in rocks and other materials by phase-delay methods.” Geophysics 40 (6): 955–960. https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1440590.
Kawaguchi, T., T. Mitachi, and S. Shibuya. 2001. “Evaluation of shear wave travel time in laboratory bender element test.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 155–158. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Kim, N. R., and D. S. Kim. 2010. “A shear wave velocity tomography system for geotechnical centrifuge testing.” Geotech. Test. J. 33 (6): 434–444. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ102894.
Lee, J. S., A. L. Fernandez, and J. C. Santamarina. 2005. “S-wave velocity tomography: Small scale laboratory application.” Geotech. Test. J. 28 (4): 336–344.
Lee, J. S., and J. C. Santamarina. 2005. “Bender elements: Performance and signal interpretation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 131 (9): 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:9(1063).
Lohani, T. N., G. Imai, and S. Shibuya. 1999. “Determination of shear wave velocity in bender element test.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotechical Engineering, edited by P. S. Sêco e Pinto, 101–106. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Pinnegar, C. R., and L. Mansinha. 2003. “The S-transform with windows of arbitrary and varying shape.” Geophysics 68 (1): 381–385. https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1543223.
Prada, J., D. Fratta, and J. C. Santamarina. 2000. “Tomographic detection of low-velocity anomalies with limited data sets (velocity and attenuation).” Geotech. Test. J. 23 (4): 472–486. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11068J.
Sánchez-Salinero, I., J. M. Roesset, I. I. Stokoe, and H. Kenneth. 1986. Analytical studies of body wave propagation and attenuation. Austin, TX: Univ. of Texas.
Santamarina, J. C., and M. A. Fam. 1997. “Interpretation of bender element tests discussion.” Géotechnique 47 (4): 873–877. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1997.47.4.873.
Santamarina, J. C., and D. Fratta. 1998. Introduction to discrete signals and inverse problems in civil engineering. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Smith, J. O., III. 2011. “Spectral audio signal processing.” Accessed February 14, 2008. https://www.freetechbooks.com/spectral-audio-signal-processing-t679.html.
Stockwell, R. G. 1999. “S transform analysis of gravity wave activity from a small scale network of airglow imagers.” Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Graduate Studies, Univ. of Western Ontario.
Stockwell, R. G., L. Mansinha, and R. P. Lowe. 1996. “Localization of the complex spectrum: The S transform.” IEEE Trans. Sig. Process. 44 (4): 998–1001. https://doi.org/10.1109/78.492555.
Styler, M. A., and J. A. Howie. 2013. “Combined time and frequency domain approach to the interpretation of bender-element tests on sand.” Geotech. Test. J. 36 (5): 20120081. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20120081.
Viggiani, G., and J. H. Atkinson. 1995. “Interpretation of bender element tests.” Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 8 (32): 373A.
Wang, Y. H., K. F. Lo, W. M. Yan, and X. Dong. 2007. “Measurement biases in the bender element test.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (5): 564–574. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:5(564).
Witten, A. J., and E. Long. 1986. “Shallow applications of geophysical diffraction tomography.” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. GE-24 (5): 654–662. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.1986.289611.
Wu, Y. 2018. “Design and application of electrical resistivity and mechanical wave-based measurement systems for non-destructive process monitoring.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong Univ. of Science and Technology.
Zhang, Z., and Y. H. Wang. 2018. “An innovative experimental setup for characterizing friction fatigue during cyclic jacking of piles in dense sand.” Geotech. Test. J. 42 (3): 573. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20170393.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
©2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jul 14, 2018
Accepted: Mar 8, 2019
Published online: Jul 2, 2019
Published in print: Sep 1, 2019
Discussion open until: Dec 2, 2019
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.