Forum
Mar 13, 2019

It is Time to Use Unsaturated Soil Mechanics in Routine Geotechnical Engineering Practice

Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 145, Issue 5

Abstract

Forum papers are thought-provoking opinion pieces or essays founded in fact, sometimes containing speculation, on a civil engineering topic of general interest and relevance to the readership of the journal. The views expressed in this Forum article do not necessarily reflect the views of ASCE or the Editorial Board of the journal.

Get full access to this article

View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.

References

Aitchison, G. D. 1961. “Relationship of moisture and effective stress functions in unsaturated soils.” In Proc., Pore Pressure and Suction in Soils Conf., 47–52. London: Butterworths.
Alabdullah, J. 2010. “Testing unsaturated soil for plane strain conditions: A new double-wall biaxial device.” Ph.D. dissertation, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bauhaus-Univ. Weimar.
Alonso, E. E., A. Gens, and A. Josa. 1990. “A constitutive model for partly saturated soils.” Géotechnique 40 (3): 405–430. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1990.40.3.405.
Alsherif, N., and J. S. McCartney. 2014. “Effective stress in unsaturated silt under low degrees of saturation.” Vadose Zone J. 13 (5): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2013.06.0109.
Barden, L., A. O. Madedor, and G. R. Sides. 1969. “Volume change characteristics of unsaturated clay.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 95 (Jan): 33–52.
Bishop, A. W. 1959. “The principle of effective stress.” Teknisk Ukeblad 106 (39): 859–863.
Bishop, A. W., and G. E. Blight. 1963. “Some aspects of effective stress in saturated and unsaturated soils.” Geotechnique 13 (3): 177–197. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1963.13.3.177.
Bishop, A. W. T., and I. B. Donald. 1961. “Experimental study of partly saturated soil in the triaxial apparatus.” In Proc., 5th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 13–21. Paris: Dunod.
Cardoso, R., G. Sarapajevaite, O. Korsun, and L. Cardoso. 2017. “Microfabricated sol-gel relative humidity sensors for soil suction measurement during laboratory tests.” Can. Geotech. J. 54 (8): 1176–1183. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0419.
Ching, R. K. H., J. Sweeney, and D. G. Fredlund. 1984. “Increase in factor of safety due to soil suction for two Hong Kong slopes.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., 4th Int. Symp. on Landslides, 617–623. Toronto: Canadian Geotechnical Society.
Croney, D. 1952. “The movement and distribution of water in soils.” Géotechnique 3 (1): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1952.3.1.1.
Croney, D., and J. D. Coleman. 1948. “Soil thermodynamics applied to the movement of moisture in road foundations.” In Vol. 3 of Proc., 7th Int. Congress for Applied Mechanics, 163–177. London: Imperial College of Science and Technology.
Croney, D., and J. D. Coleman. 1954. “Soil structure in relation to soil suction (pF).” Soil Sci. J. 5 (1): 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1954.tb02177.x.
Croney, D., and J. D. Coleman. 1961. “Pore pressure and suction in soil.” In Proc., Conf. Pore Pressure and Suction in Soils, 31–37. London: Butterworths.
Croney, D., J. D. Coleman, and W. P. M. Black. 1958. “Movement and distribution of water in soil in relation to highway design and performance.” In Water and its conduction in soils, 226–252. Washington, DC: Highway Research Board.
Delage, P. 2002. “Experimental unsaturated soil mechanics.” In Vol. 3 of Proc., 3rd Int. Conf on Unsaturated Soils, edited by J. F. T. Juca, T. M. P. De Campo, and F. A. M. Marinho, 973–996. Recife, Brazil: A.A. Balkema.
Dong, Y., and N. Lu. 2017. “Measurement of suction-stress characteristic curve under drying and wetting conditions.” Geotech. Test. J. 40 (1): 107–121.
Fredlund, D. G. 2000. “Historical developments and milestones in unsaturated soil mechanics.” In Proc., Unsaturated Soils for Asia, edited by H. Rahardjo, D. G. Toll, and E. C. Leong, 53–68. Leiden, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Fredlund, D. G. 2002. “Teaching unsaturated soil mechanics to undergraduate curriculum.” In Proc., Keynote Address, Pan American Conf. on Geotechnical Engineering Education. Quito, Ecuador.
Fredlund, D. G. 2006. “Unsaturated soil mechanics in engineering practice.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (3): 286–321. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:3(286).
Fredlund, D. G. 2016. “State variables in saturated-unsaturated soil mechanics.” Soils Rocks 39 (1): 3–17.
Fredlund, D. G., and S. Houston. 2009. “A protocol for assessment of unsaturated soils properties for geotechnical practice.” Can. Geotech. J. 46 (6): 694–707. https://doi.org/10.1139/T09-010.
Fredlund, D. G., and N. R. Morgenstern. 1977. “Stress state variables for unsaturated soils.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 103 (5): 447–466.
Fredlund, D. G., and H. Rahardjo. 1993. Soil mechanics for unsaturated soils. New York: Wiley.
Fredlund, D. G., H. Rahardjo, and M. Fredlund. 2012. Unsaturated soil mechanics in engineering practice. New York: Wiley.
Gallipoli, D., A. Gens, R. Sharma, and J. Vaunat. 2003. “An elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soil incorporating the effects of suction and degree of saturation on mechanical behavior.” Géotechnique 53 (1): 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2003.53.1.123.
Gee, G. W., M. D. Campbell, G. S. Campbell, and J. H. Campbell. 1992. “Rapid measurement of low soil water potentials using a water activity meter.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 56 (4): 1068–1070. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1992.03615995005600040010x.
Gens, A. 1996. “Constitutive modelling: Application to compacted soils.” In Proc., 1st Int. Conf Unsaturated Soils UNSAT’ 95, 1179–1200. Leiden, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Hilf, J. W. 1956. “An investigation of pore-water pressure in compacted cohesive soils.” Ph.D. thesis, US Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Design and Construction Division.
Hossain, M. A., and J. Yin. 2010. “Behavior of a compacted completely decomposed granite soil from suction controlled direct shear test.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (1): 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000189.
Houston, S. L. 2002. “Applied unsaturated soil mechanics, state of the art report.” In Vol. 3 of Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. Unsaturated Soils, 1127–1134. Recife, Brazil: A.A. Balkema.
Houston, S. L. 2014. “Characterization of unsaturated soils: The importance of response to wetting.” Geotech. Spec. Publ. 235: 77–96.
Houston, S. L., P. Stauffer, M. West, E. Bradford, and W. Houston. 2018. “Use of the net partial wetting factor (NPWF) method of computation of remaining heave: A forensic study.” In Proc., 2nd Pan-Am. Conf. Unsaturated Soils. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Jennings, J. E. 1961. “A revised effective stress law for use in the prediction of the behavior of unsaturated soils.” In Proc., Conf. Pore Pressure and Suction in Soils, 26–30. London: Butterworths.
Jennings, J. E. B., and J. B. Burland. 1962. “Limitations to the use of effective stresses in partly saturated soils.” Geotechnique 12 (2): 125–144. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1962.12.2.125.
Jung, J. K., T. D. O’Rourke, and N. A. Olson. 2013. “Lateral soil-pipe interaction in dry and partially saturated sand.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 139 (12): 2028–2036. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000960.
Khalili, N., F. Geiser, and G. E. Blight. 2004. “Effective stress in unsaturated soils, a review with new evidence.” Int. J. Geomech. 4 (2): 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1532-3641(2004)4:2(115).
Khalili, N., and M. H. Khabbaz. 1998. “A unique relationship for the determination of the shear strength of unsaturated soils.” Géotechnique 48 (5): 681–687. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1998.48.5.681.
Klute, A. 1986. “Water retention: Laboratory methods, in methods of soil analysis, Part 1.” In Physical and mineralogical methods, edited by A. Klute, 635–662. 2nd ed. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy.
Krahn, J., and D. G. Fredlund. 1972. “On total, matric and osmotic suction.” Soil Sci. 114 (5): 339–348. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-197211000-00003.
Lambe, T. W. 1953. “The structure of inorganic soil.” Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 79 (315): 49.
Lambe, T. W. 1958. “The structure of compacted clay.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 84 (2): 1–3.
Lambe, W. T. 1967. “Stress path method.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 93 (6): 309–331.
Leong, E. C., S. Tripathy, and H. Rahardjo. 2003. “Total suction measurement of unsaturated soils with a device using the chilled-mirror dew-point technique.” Géotechnique 53 (2): 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2003.53.2.173.
Lu, N. 2018. “Generalized elastic modulus equation for unsaturated soil.” In PanAm unsaturated soils. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Lu, N., J. W. Godt, and D. T. Wu. 2010. “A closed-form equation for effective stress in variably saturated soil.” Water Resour. Res. 46 (5): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008646.
Lu, N., and D. V. Griffiths. 2004. “Profiles of steady-state suction stress in unsaturated soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130 (10): 1063–1076. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:10(1063).
Lu, N., and W. Likos. 2006. “Suction stress characteristic curve for unsaturated soil.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 132 (2): 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:2(131).
Lu, N., and W. J. Likos. 2004. Unsaturated soil mechanics. New York: Wiley.
Manahiloh, K. N., B. Muhunthan, and W. J. Likos. 2016. “Microstructure-based effective stress formulation for unsaturated granular soils.” Int. J. Geotech. 16 (6): D4016006. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000617.
Matyas, E. L., and H. S. Radhakrishna. 1968. “Volume change characteristics of partially saturated soils.” Géotechnique 18 (4): 432–448. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1968.18.4.432.
Mirshekari, M., and M. Ghayoomi. 2018. “Effects of shaking intensity on seismic response of unsaturated sand layers.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Unsaturated Soils, edited by C. Ng, A. Leung, A. Chiu, and C. Zhou, 239–244. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univ. of Science and Technology.
Mitchell, J. K. 1993. Fundamentals of soil behavior. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.
Morgenstern, N. R. 1963. “Properties of compacted soils.” In Vol. 3 of Proc., 6th Pan American Conf. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 349–354. São Paulo, Brazil: Associação Brasileira de Mecânica dos Solos.
Nuth, M., and L. Laloui. 2008. “Effective stress concept in unsaturated soils: clarification and validation of a unified framework.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 32 (7): 771–801. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.645.
Oh, W. T., and S. K. Vanapalli. 2011. “Modelling the applied vertical stress and settlement relationship of shallow foundations in saturated and unsaturated sands.” Can. Geotech. J. 48 (3): 425–438. https://doi.org/10.1139/T10-079.
Ornelas, A., Jr., S. Houston, W. Savenye, C. Zapata, E. Ramirez, and A. Corral. 2015. “Disciplinary diversity in the development of geotechnical engineering undergraduate education materials.” In Proc., IFCEE 2015: GSP 256, 2161–2168. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Rahardjo, H., Q. Zhai, A. Satyanaga, E. C. Leong, L. Wang, and H. Wong. 2018. “Numerical analyses for assessment of geobarrier system performance.” In Proc., PanAm Unsaturated Soils 2017: Plenary Papers, edited by L. Hoyos, J. McCartney, S. Houston, and W. Likos, 132–148. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Richards, L. A. 1941. “A pressure-membrane extraction apparatus for soil solution.” Soil Sci. 51 (5): 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-194105000-00005.
Richards, L. A. 1986. “Physical condition of water in soil, in methods of soil analysis, part 1.” Chap. 8 in Physical and mineralogical methods, edited by A. Klute, 128–152. 2nd ed. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy.
Ridley, A. M., and J. B. Burland. 1993. “A new instrument for the measurement of soil moisture suction.” Géotechnique 43 (2): 321–324. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1993.43.2.321.
Scanlon, B. R., B. J. Andraski, and J. Bilskie. 2002. “Miscellaneous methods for measurement of soil matric or water potential.” In Methods of soil analysis, Part 4, physical methods, edited by J. H. Dane and G. C. Topp, 643–670. Madison, WI: Soil Science Society of America.
Sheng, D. 2011. “Review of fundamental principles in modelling unsaturated soil behavior.” Comput. Geotech. 38 (6): 757–776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2011.05.002.
Sheng, D., D. G. Fredlund, and A. Gens. 2008a. “A new modelling approach for unsaturated soils using independent stress variables.” Can. Geotech. J. 45 (4): 511–534. https://doi.org/10.1139/T07-112.
Sheng, D., D. G. Fredlund, and A. Gens. 2008b. “Reply to discussion by Zhang and Lytton on ‘A new modelling approach for unsaturated soils using independent stress variables.’.” Can. Geotech. J. 45 (12): 1788–1794. https://doi.org/10.1139/T08-097.
Sheng, D., D. Pedrosos, and G. Burton. 2011. “Some questions about unsaturated soil modelling.” In Proc., 7th Brazilian Conf. Unsaturated Soils, 45–57. Pirenopolis, GO.
Sheng, D., and A. N. Zhou. 2011. “Coupling hydraulic with mechanical models for unsaturated soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 48 (5): 826–840. https://doi.org/10.1139/t10-109.
Shidlovskaya, A., and J. Briaud. 2016. “Modern syllabus for introduction to geotechnical engineering.” In Proc., Int. Conf. Geoengineering Education, Shaping the Future of Geotechnical Education. Brazil: ABMS.
Soutas-Little, R. W. 2011. “History of continuum mechanics.” In Vol. 14 of Encyclopedia of life support systems (EOLSS), section ‘continuum mechanics’, edited by J. Merodio and G. Saccomandi. Oxford: EOLSS Publishers.
Tamagnini, R. 2004. “An extended Cam-clay model for unsaturated soils with hydraulic hysteresis.” Geotechnique 54 (3): 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2004.54.3.223.
Terzaghi, K. 1936. “The shear strength of saturated soils.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., 1st Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 54–56. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ.
Terzaghi, K. 1943. Theoretical soil mechanics. New York: Wiley.
Terzaghi, K., R. B. Peck, and G. Mesri. 1996. Soil mechanics for engineering practice. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley.
Timoshenko, S. 1934. Theory of elasticity. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Vanapalli, S., D. Fredlund, D. Pufahl, and A. W. Clifton. 1996. “Model for the prediction of shear strength with respect to soil suction.” Can. Geotech. J. 33 (3): 379–392. https://doi.org/10.1139/t96-060.
van Genuchten, M. T. 1980. “A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.” J. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 44 (5): 892–898. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x.
Walsh, K. D., C. A. Colby, W. N. Houston, and S. L. Houston. 2009. “Method for evaluation of depth wetting in residential areas.” J. Geotech. Eng. 135 (2): 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2009)135:2(169).
Walsh, K. D., W. Houston, and S. Houston. 1993. “Evaluation of in-place wetting using soil suction measurements.” J. Geotech. 119 (15): 862–873. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1993)119:5(862).
Wheeler, S., and D. Karube. 1996. “Constitutive behaviour.” In Vol. 3 of Proc., 1st Int. Conf Unsaturated Soils UNSAT’95, 1323–1356. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Wheeler, S. J., R. S. Sharma, and M. S. R. Buisson. 2003. “Coupling of hydraulic hysteresis and stress-strain behaviour in unsaturated soils.” Géotechnique 53 (1): 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2003.53.1.41.
Zhang, X., and R. L. Lytton. 2009a. “Modified state-surface approach to the study of unsaturated soil behavior. Part I: Basic concept.” Can. Geotech. J. 46 (5): 536–552. https://doi.org/10.1139/T08-136.
Zhang, X., and R. L. Lytton. 2009b. “Modified state-surface approach to the study of unsaturated soil behavior. Part II: General formulation.” Can. Geotech. J. 46 (5): 553–570. https://doi.org/10.1139/T08-137.
Zhang, X., and R. L. Lytton. 2012. “Modified state-surface approach to the study of unsaturated soil behavior. Part III: Modeling coupled hydromechanical effects.” Can. Geotech. J. 49 (1): 98–120. https://doi.org/10.1139/t11-089.
Zhou, A. N., and D. Sheng. 2009. “Yield stress, volume change and shear strength behavior of unsaturated soils: Validation of the SFG model.” Can. Geotech. J. 46 (9): 1034–1045. https://doi.org/10.1139/T09-049.
Zhou, W., and X. Xu. 2015. “Shear strength of unsaturated completely decomposed granite under different stress state conditions.” Jpn. Geotech. Soc. Spec. Publ. 2 (1): 230–235.

Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Go to Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 145Issue 5May 2019

History

Received: Jul 18, 2018
Accepted: Oct 25, 2018
Published online: Mar 13, 2019
Published in print: May 1, 2019
Discussion open until: Aug 13, 2019

Permissions

Request permissions for this article.

Authors

Affiliations

Sandra L. Houston, Ph.D., M.ASCE [email protected]
P.E.
Professor, School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering, Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287. Email: [email protected]

Metrics & Citations

Metrics

Citations

Download citation

If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.

Cited by

View Options

Get Access

Access content

Please select your options to get access

Log in/Register Log in via your institution (Shibboleth)
ASCE Members: Please log in to see member pricing

Purchase

Save for later Information on ASCE Library Cards
ASCE Library Cards let you download journal articles, proceedings papers, and available book chapters across the entire ASCE Library platform. ASCE Library Cards remain active for 24 months or until all downloads are used. Note: This content will be debited as one download at time of checkout.

Terms of Use: ASCE Library Cards are for individual, personal use only. Reselling, republishing, or forwarding the materials to libraries or reading rooms is prohibited.
ASCE Library Card (5 downloads)
$105.00
Add to cart
ASCE Library Card (20 downloads)
$280.00
Add to cart
Buy Single Article
$35.00
Add to cart

Get Access

Access content

Please select your options to get access

Log in/Register Log in via your institution (Shibboleth)
ASCE Members: Please log in to see member pricing

Purchase

Save for later Information on ASCE Library Cards
ASCE Library Cards let you download journal articles, proceedings papers, and available book chapters across the entire ASCE Library platform. ASCE Library Cards remain active for 24 months or until all downloads are used. Note: This content will be debited as one download at time of checkout.

Terms of Use: ASCE Library Cards are for individual, personal use only. Reselling, republishing, or forwarding the materials to libraries or reading rooms is prohibited.
ASCE Library Card (5 downloads)
$105.00
Add to cart
ASCE Library Card (20 downloads)
$280.00
Add to cart
Buy Single Article
$35.00
Add to cart

Media

Figures

Other

Tables

Share

Share

Copy the content Link

Share with email

Email a colleague

Share