Abstract
Effects of hydration fluid and long-term field exposure on moisture-suction relationships for three types of needlepunched geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) containing granular sodium bentonite were investigated using the pressure plate, filter paper, and relative humidity methods over a wide range of suction (0–400,000 kPa). Tests were conducted on virgin GCLs hydrated with deionized (DI) water, tap water, and a 0.07 M solution as well as a GCL exhumed from a landfill cover test plot 9 years after installation. Hysteresis in the moisture-suction relationship decreased progressively for GCLs hydrated with DI water (maximum hysteresis) to tap water to the solution to the field exhumed conditions (minimum hysteresis), with the drying and wetting paths of the moisture-suction relationship converging for the tests with solution and the exhumed GCL. The liquid limit, plasticity index, swell index, bulk void ratio, and water content at zero suction decreased as the hydration condition varied from DI and tap water to the solution and the field exhumed specimen. Both crystalline and osmotic swelling occurred in the GCLs hydrated with DI and tap water, whereas only crystalline swelling occurred in the GCLs hydrated with and in the field-exposed GCL. The field-exhumed GCL exhibited nearly complete cation exchange. Mole fractions of bound to the bentonite decreased from 61% in DI water to less than 1% for the exhumed GCL.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This investigation was supported in part by the Global Waste Research Institute. Mr. Darius was supported by funds provided by a National Science Foundation REU Site Grant: EEC-1263337. The BC and CEC tests were conducted at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The assistance of Mr. Jiannan N. Chen, Ms. Hulya Salihoglu, and Mr. Weijun Geng of the University of Wisconsin-Madison is appreciated. The US Department of Energy’s Consortium for Risk Evaluation with Stakeholder Participation (CRESP) III provided support for Dr. Benson’s contributions and for the assistance provided by students at the University of Wisconsin-Madison through Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FC01-06EW07053. CETCO provided the GCLs used in the study. Mr. Chris Athanassopoulos of Hunter College provided technical information.
References
Acikel, A. S., R. M. Sing, A. Bouazza, W. P. Gates, and R. K. Rowe. 2015. “Applicability and accuracy of the initially dry and initially wet contact filter paper tests for matric suction measurement of geosynthetic clay liners.” Geotechnique 65 (9): 780–787. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.13.P.222.
ASTM. 2010a. Standard test methods for laboratory determination of water (moisture) content of soil and rock by mass. ASTM D2216. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2010b. Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. ASTM D4318. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2010c. Standard test method for measuring the exchange complex and cation exchange capacity of inorganic fine-grained soils. ASTM D7503. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2011. Standard test method for swell index of clay mineral component of geosynthetic clay liners. ASTM D5890. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2016a. Standard test methods for determination of the soil water characteristic curve for desorption using hanging column, pressure extractor, chilled mirror hygrometer, or centrifuge. ASTM D6836. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2016b. Standard test method for measurement of index flux through saturated geosynthetic clay liner specimens using a flexible wall permeameter. ASTM D5887. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2016c. Standard test method for measurement of soil potential (suction) using filter paper. ASTM D5298. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Barosso, M., N. Touze-Foltz, and F. Saidi. 2006. “Validation of the use of filter paper suction measurements for the determination of GCLs water retention curves.” In Proc., 8th Int. Conf. on Geosynthetics, 171–174. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Millpress.
Beddoe, R. A., W. A. Take, and R. K. Rowe. 2010. “Development of suction measurement techniques to quantify the water retention behavior of GCLs.” Geosynthetics Int. 17 (5): 301–312. https://doi.org/10.1680/gein.2010.17.5.301.
Beddoe, R. A., W. A. Take, and R. K. Rowe. 2011. “Water-retention behavior of geosynthetic clay liners.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 137 (11): 1028–1038. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000526.
Benson, C. H. 2013. “Impact of subgrade water content on cation exchange and hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners in composite barriers.” In Coupled phenomena in environmental geotechnics, edited by M. Manassero, A. Dominijanni, S. Foti, and G. Musso, 79–84. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Benson, C. H., W. Albright, D. Fratta, J. Tinjum, I. E. Kucukkirca, S. Lee, J. Scalia, P. Schlicht, and X. Wang. 2011. Engineered covers for waste containment: Changes in engineering properties & implications for long-term performance assessment. Washington, DC: Office of Research, US Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Benson, C. H., and T. Gurdal. 2013. “Hydrologic properties of final cover soils, foundation engineering in the face of uncertainty.” In GSP No. 229: Geo-Congress 2013, edited by J. Withiam, K.-K. Phoon, and M. Hussein, 283–297. Reston VA: ASCE.
Benson, C. H., I. E. Kucukkirca, and J. Scalia. 2010. “Properties of geosynthetics exhumed from the final cover at a solid waste landfill.” Geotext. Geomembr. 28 (6): 536–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2010.03.001.
Benson, C. H., P. A. Thorstad, H. Jo, and S. A. Rock. 2007. “Hydraulic performance of geosynthetic clay liners in a landfill final cover.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (7): 814–827. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:7(814).
Bouazza, A., S. Jefferis, and T. Vangpaisal. 2007. “Investigation of the effects and degree of calcium exchange on the Atterberg limits and swelling of geosynthetic clay liners when subjected to wet-dry cycles.” Geotext. Geomembr. 25 (3): 170–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2006.11.001.
Bouazza, A., T. Vangpaisal, and S. Jefferis. 2006. “Effect of wet-dry cycles and cation exchange on gas permeability of geosynthetic clay liners.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (8): 1011–1018. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:8(1011).
Bouwer, H. 1966. “Rapid field measurement of air entry value and hydraulic conductivity as significant parameters in flow systems analysis.” Water Resour. Res. 2 (4): 729–738. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR002i004p00729.
Bradshaw, S. L., and C. H. Benson. 2014. “Effect of municipal solid waste leachate on hydraulic conductivity and exchange complex of geosynthetic clay liners.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (4): 04013038. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001050.
Bradshaw, S. L., C. H. Benson, and J. Scalia. 2013. “Cation exchange during subgrade hydration and effect on hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139 (4): 526–538. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000793.
Egloffstein, T. A. 2001. “Natural bentonites—influence of the ion exchange and partial desiccation on permeability and self-healing capacity of bentonites used in GCLs.” Geotext. Geomembr. 19 (7): 427–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-1144(01)00017-6.
Faisandier, K., C. H. Pons, D. Tchoubar, and F. Thomas. 1998. “Structural organization of Na- and K-montmorillonite suspensions in response to osmotic and thermal stresses.” Clays Clay Min. 46 (6): 636–648. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1998.0460604.
Fredlund, D. G., H. Rahardjo, and M. D. Fredlund. 2012. Unsaturated soil mechanics in engineering practice. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Fredlund, D. G., and A. Xing. 1994. “Equations for the soil-water characteristic curve.” Can. Geotech. J. 31 (4): 533–546. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-062.
Gates, W. P., L. P. Aldridge, G. G. Carnero-Guzman, R. A. Mole, D. Yu, G. N. Iles, A. Klapproth, and H. N. Bordallo. 2017. “Water desorption and absorption isotherms of sodium montmorillonite: A QENS study.” Appl. Clay Sci. 147: 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.07.011.
Guyonnet, D., E. Gaucher, H. Gaboriau, C.-H. Pons, C. Clinard, V. Norotte, and G. Didier. 2005. “Geosynthetic clay liner interaction with leachate: Correlation between permeability, microstructure, and surface chemistry.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 131 (6): 740–749. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:6(740).
Hanson, J. L., J. L. Risken, and N. Yesiller. 2013. “Moisture-suction relationships for geosynthetic clay liners.” In Proc., 18th ICSMGE, 3025–3028. London: ISSMGE.
James, A. N., D. Fullerton, and R. Drake. 1997. “Field performance of GCL under ion exchange conditions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 123 (10): 897–901. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1997)123:10(897).
Jo, H., C. H. Benson, C. D. Shackelford, J. Lee, and T. B. Edil. 2005. “Long-term hydraulic conductivity of a non-prehydrated geosynthetic clay liner permeated with inorganic salt solutions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 131 (4): 405–417. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:4(405).
Jo, H., T. Katsumi, C. H. Benson, and T. B. Edil. 2001. “Hydraulic conductivity and swelling of nonprehydrated GCLs permeated with single-species salt solutions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 127 (7): 557–567. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2001)127:7(557).
Kolstad, D. C., C. H. Benson, and T. B. Edil. 2004. “Hydraulic conductivity and swell of nonprehydrated GCLs permeated with multispecies inorganic solutions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130 (12): 1236–1249. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:12(1236).
Lee, J., C. D. Shackelford, C. H. Benson, H. Jo, and T. B. Edil. 2005. “Correlating index properties and hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 131 (11): 1319–1329. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:11(1319).
Lin, L., and C. Benson. 2000. “Effect of wet-dry cycling on swelling and hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 126 (1): 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2000)126:1(40).
Lu, N., and M. Khorshidi. 2015. “Mechanisms for soil-water retention and hysteresis at high suction range.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 141 (8): 04015032. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001325.
Lu, N., and W. Likos. 2004. Unsaturated soil mechanics. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Malusis, M. A., and C. D. Shackelford. 2002. “Coupling effects during steady-state solute diffusion through a semipermeable clay membrane.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 36 (6): 1312–1319. https://doi.org/10.1021/es011130q.
McBride, M. B. 1994. Environmental chemistry of soils. New York: Oxford University Press.
Meer, S. R., and C. H. Benson. 2007. “Hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners exhumed from landfill final covers.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (5): 550–563. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:5(550).
Melchior, S. 1997. “In situ studies of the performance of landfill caps (compacted soil liners, geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, capillary barriers).” Land Contam. Reclam. 5 (3): 209–216. https://doi.org/10.2462/09670513.944.
Melchior, S. 2002. “Field studies and excavations of geosynthetic clay barriers in landfill covers.” In Clay geosynthetic barriers, edited by H. Zanzinger, R. M. Koerner, and E. Gartung, 321–330. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Melchior, S., V. Sokollek, K. Berger, B. Vielhaber, and B. Steinert. 2010. “Results from 18 years of in situ performance testing of landfill cover systems in Germany.” J. Environ. Eng. 136 (8): 815–823. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000200.
Mooney, R. W., A. G. Keenan, and L. A. Wood. 1952. “Adsorption of water vapor by montmorillonite. II. Effect of exchangeable ions and lattice swelling as measured by X-ray diffraction.” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 74 (6): 1371–1374. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01126a002.
Moore, D., and R. Reynolds. 1989. X-ray diffraction and the identification of clay minerals, New York: Oxford University Press.
Norrish, K. 1954. “Crystalline swelling of montmorillonite, manner of swelling of montmorillonite.” Nature 173 (4397): 256–257. https://doi.org/10.1038/173256a0.
Norrish, K., and J. P. Quirk. 1954. “Crystalline swelling of montmorillonite, use of electrolytes to control swelling.” Nature 173 (4397): 255–256. https://doi.org/10.1038/173255a0.
NRC (National Research Council). 2007. Assessment of the performance of engineered waste containment barriers. Washington, DC: NRC.
Olsen, G. R., N. Yesiller, and J. L. Hanson. 2012. “Dimensional stability of geosynthetic clay liners under varying hydration conditions.” In Proc., GeoAmericas 2012: 2nd Pan-American Congress on Geosynthetics. Jupiter, FL: IGS.
Petrov, R. J., R. K. Rowe, and R. M. Quigley. 1997. “Selected factors influencing GCL hydraulic conductivity.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 123 (8): 683–695. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1997)123:8(683).
Power, K. C., S. K. Vanapalli, and V. K. Garga. 2008. “A revised contact filter paper method.” Geotech. Test. J. 31 (6): 461–469. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ101099.
Ruhl, J. L., and D. E. Daniel. 1997. “Geosynthetic clay liners permeated with chemical solutions and leachates.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 123 (4): 369–381. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1997)123:4(369).
Scalia, J., and C. H. Benson. 2011. “Hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners exhumed from landfill final covers with composite barriers.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 137 (1): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000407.
Scalia, J., C. H. Benson, G. L. Bohnhoff, T. B. Edil, and C. D. Shackelford. 2014. “Long-term hydraulic conductivity of a bentonite-polymer composite permeated with aggressive inorganic solutions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (3): 04013025. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001040.
Scalia, J., C. H. Benson, T. Edil, G. Bohnhoff, and C. Shackelford. 2011. “Geosynthetic clay liner containing bentonite polymer nanocomposite.” In GSP No. 211: Geo-Frontiers 2011: Advances in Geotechnical Engineering, edited by J. Han and D. Alzamora, 2001–2009. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Tang, G. X., J. Graham, J. Blatz, M. Gray, and R. K. N. D. Rajapakse. 2002. “Suctions, stresses and strengths in unsaturated sand-bentonite.” Eng. Geol. 64 (2–3): 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(01)00108-9.
van Genuchten, M. 1980. “A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44 (5): 892–898. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x.
Vasko, S., H. Jo, C. Benson, T. Edil, and T. Katsumi. 2001. “Hydraulic conductivity of partially prehydrated geosynthetic clay liners permeated with aqueous calcium chloride solutions.” In Geosynthetics Conf. 2001, 685–699. St. Paul, MN: Industrial Fabrics Association International.
Wang, X., and C. Benson. 2004. “Leak-free pressure plate extractor for measuring the soil water characteristic curve.” Geotech. Test. J. 27 (2): 163–172. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11392.
Yong, R. N. 1999. “Soil suction and soil-water potentials in swelling clays in engineered clay barriers.” Eng. Geol. 54 (1–2): 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(99)00056-3.
Zanzinger, H., and N. Touze-Foltz. 2009. “Clay geosynthetic barriers performance in landfill covers.” In Proc., GIGSA GeoAfrica 2009 Conf., 1–9. Jupiter, FL: IGS.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 145 • Issue 4 • April 2019
Copyright
©2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Dec 23, 2016
Accepted: Aug 17, 2018
Published online: Feb 8, 2019
Published in print: Apr 1, 2019
Discussion open until: Jul 8, 2019
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.