Particle Size Effects on the Volumetric Shrinkage of Bentonite–Sand Mixtures
Publication: International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 22, Issue 8
Abstract
Tests were conducted on bentonite–silica fume mixtures (BSFMs) to determine how particle size affects the volumetric shrinkage of bentonite–sand mixtures (BSMs) used as hydraulic barriers in waste disposal facilities. Free desiccation tests, liquid limit tests, plastic limit tests, and direct shear tests were conducted to compare the soil shrinkage characteristic curves, shrinkage limits, plasticity, and shear strength of BSFMs to that of the commonly used bentonite–standard sand mixtures (BSSMs) at 30% sand percentage. BSFMs exhibited higher air entry values (up to 55.9% higher), shrinkage limits (up to 14.6% higher), final void ratio (up to 43.6% higher), peak shear strength (up to 115% higher), and a smaller percentage of volumetric shrinkage (10.8%) than BSSMs due to the particle contact and constrained particle movement. The liquid and plastic limits of BSFMs, in contrast, were also higher (up to 99.2% and 27.1%) than that of BSSMs. Particle size plays a critical role in controlling the shrinkage limits of BSMs compared to clay fractions.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank especially Dr. Tongwei Zhang, Ms. Fei Zhu, and Mr. Dongjin He (Lanzhou University) for their contribution to this paper. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41972265). The first author (Yu Tan) acknowledges the China Scholarship Council for supporting his study at the University of Virginia. The authors gratefully acknowledge the UVA Writing Center for its English language assistance and the anonymous reviewers for their suggestions.
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
- ef
- final void ratio;
- e
- void ratio;
- e0
- initial void ratio;
- Gsa
- the average specific gravity of BSM;
- k0 and n
- parameters in the Gro model;
- m
- weight;
- m0
- initial weight;
- RS
- sand content;
- Sr
- degree of saturation;
- V
- volume;
- ɛv
- volumetric shrinkage ratio;
- θ
- volumetric moisture ratio;
- θA
- volumetric moisture ratio at air entry;
- θS
- volumetric moisture ratio at shrinkage limit;
- ρw
- density of water at 3.98°C;
- σv
- normal or vertical stress;
- τf
- shear strength;
- ω
- moisture content;
- ω0
- initial moisture;
- ωA
- air entry value; and
- ωS
- shrinkage limit.
References
Abichou, T., C. H. Benson, and T. B. Edil. 2002. “Micro-structure and hydraulic conductivity of simulated sand–bentonite mixtures.” Clays Clay Miner. 50 (5): 537–545. https://doi.org/10.1346/000986002320679422.
Albrecht, B. A., and C. H. Benson. 2001. “Effect of desiccation on compacted natural clays.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 127 (1): 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2001)127:1(67).
Albright, W. H., C. H. Benson, G. W. Gee, T. Abichou, E. V. McDonald, S. W. Tyler, and S. A. Rock. 2006. “Field performance of a compacted clay landfill final cover at a humid site.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (11): 1393–1403. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:11(1393).
Andrade, F. A., H. A. Al-Qureshi, and D. Hotza. 2011. “Measuring the plasticity of clays: A review.” Appl. Clay Sci. 51 (1): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2010.10.028.
ASTM. 2017. Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. ASTM D4318. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2019. Standard test methods for laboratory determination of water (moisture) content of soil and rock by mass. ASTM D2216. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Benson, C. H., and S. R. Meer. 2009. “Relative abundance of monovalent and divalent cations and the impact of desiccation on geosynthetic clay liners.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 135 (3): 349–358. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2009)135:3(349).
Benson, C. H., P. A. Thorstad, H.-Y. Jo, and S. A. Rock. 2007. “Hydraulic performance of geosynthetic clay liners in a landfill final cover.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (7): 814–827. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:7(814).
Boivin, P., P. Garnier, and D. Tessier. 2004. “Relationship between clay content, clay type, and shrinkage properties of soil samples.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 68 (4): 1145–1153. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2004.1145.
Bouazza, A. 2002. “Geosynthetic clay liners.” Geotext. Geomembr. 20 (1): 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-1144(01)00025-5.
Chen, J.-N., X. Ren, H. Xu, C. Zhang, and L. Xia. 2022. “Effects of grain size and moisture content on the strength of geogrid-reinforced sand in direct shear mode.” Int. J. Geomech. 22 (4): 04022006. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0002309.
Chen, Y.-G., X.-X. Dong, X.-D. Zhang, W.-M. Ye, and Y.-J. Cui. 2018. “Combined thermal and saline effects on the swelling pressure of densely compacted GMZ bentonite.” Appl. Clay Sci. 166: 318–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2018.10.001.
Chen, Z.-G., C.-S. Tang, C. Zhu, B. Shi, and Y.-M. Liu. 2017. “Compression, swelling and rebound behavior of GMZ bentonite/additive mixture under coupled hydro-mechanical condition.” Eng. Geol. 221: 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.02.030.
Cornelis, W. M., J. Corluy, H. Medina, J. Díaz, R. Hartmann, M. Van Meirvenne, and M. E. Ruiz. 2006a. “Measuring and modelling the soil shrinkage characteristic curve.” Geoderma 137 (1): 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2006.08.022.
Cornelis, W. M., J. Corluy, H. Medina, R. Hartmann, M. Van Meirvenne, and M. E. Ruiz. 2006b. “A simplified parametric model to describe the magnitude and geometry of soil shrinkage.” Eur. J. Soil Sci. 57 (2): 258–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2005.00739.x.
Ghavam-Nasiri, A., A. El-Zein, D. Airey, R. K. Rowe, and A. Bouazza. 2019. “Numerical simulation of geosynthetic clay liner desiccation under high thermal gradients and low overburden stress.” Int. J. Geomech. 19 (7): 04019069. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001425.
Groenevelt, P. H., and G. H. Bolt. 1972. “Water retention in soil.” Soil Sci. 113 (4): 238–245. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-197204000-00003.
Groenevelt, P. H., and C. D. Grant. 2001. “Re-evaluation of the structural properties of some British swelling soils.” Eur. J. Soil Sci. 52 (3): 469–477. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2389.2001.00388.x.
Groenevelt, P. H., and C. D. Grant. 2002. “Curvature of shrinkage lines in relation to the consistency and structure of a Norwegian clay soil.” Geoderma 106 (3-4): 235–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(01)00126-4.
Groenevelt, P. H., and C. D. Grant. 2004. “Analysis of soil shrinkage data.” Soil Tillage Res 79 (1): 71–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2004.03.011.
He, Y., W. M. Ye, Y. G. Chen, B. Chen, B. Ye, and Y.-J. Cui. 2016. “Influence of pore fluid concentration on water retention properties of compacted GMZ01 bentonite.” Appl. Clay Sci. 129: 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.05.020.
Kalkan, E. 2009. “Influence of silica fume on the desiccation cracks of compacted clayey soils.” Appl. Clay Sci. 43 (3–4): 296–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2008.09.002.
Kalkan, E. 2011. “Impact of wetting–drying cycles on swelling behavior of clayey soils modified by silica fume.” Appl. Clay Sci. 52 (4): 345–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2011.03.014.
Kalkan, E. 2013. “Preparation of scrap tire rubber fiber–silica fume mixtures for modification of clayey soils.” Appl. Clay Sci. 80–81: 117–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2013.06.014.
Kalkan, E., and S. Akbulut. 2004. “The positive effects of silica fume on the permeability, swelling pressure and compressive strength of natural clay liners.” Eng. Geol. 73 (1–2): 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2004.01.001.
Komine, H. 2008. “Theoretical equations on hydraulic conductivities of bentonite-based buffer and backfill for underground disposal of radioactive wastes.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 134 (4): 497–508. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2008)134:4(497).
Komine, H., and N. Ogata. 1994. “Experimental study on swelling characteristics of compacted bentonite.” Can Geotech J 31 (4): 478–490. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-057.
Komine, H., and N. Ogata. 1999. “Experimental study on swelling characteristics of sand–bentonite mixture for nuclear waste disposal.” Soils Found. 39 (2): 83–97. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.39.2_83.
Lloret, A., and M. V. Villar. 2007. “Advances on the knowledge of the thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of heavily compacted ‘FEBEX’ bentonite.” Phys. Chem. Earth Part A/B/C 32 (8–14): 701–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2006.03.002.
Lloret, A., M. V. Villar, M. Sánchez, A. Gens, X. Pintado, and E. E. Alonso. 2003. “Mechanical behaviour of heavily compacted bentonite under high suction changes.” Geotechnique 53 (1): 27–40. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2003.53.1.27.
Ma, G., X. He, X. Jiang, H. Liu, J. Chu, and Y. Xiao. 2021a. “Strength and permeability of bentonite-assisted biocemented coarse sand.” Can Geotech J 58 (7): 969–981. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2020-0045.
Ma, G., Y. Xiao, X. He, J. Li, J. Chu, and H. Liu. 2022. “Kaolin-nucleation-based biotreated calcareous sand through unsaturated percolation method.” Acta Geotech.. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-022-01459-y..
Ma, G., H. Zhang, Z. Ji, and Y. Tan. 2021b. “Comparison of the swelling pressure of bentonite pellet-contained materials and powder.” Constr. Build. Mater. 281: 122531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122531.
Meer, S. R., and C. H. Benson. 2007. “Hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners exhumed from landfill final covers.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (5): 550–563. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:5(550).
Mehta, A., and D. K. Ashish. 2020. “Silica fume and waste glass in cement concrete production: A review.” J. Build. Eng. 29: 100888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100888.
Nambiar, N., N. Remya, and G. K. Varghese. 2020. “Effective reuse of waste material as an amendment in composite landfill liner: Assessment of geotechnical properties and pollutant retention capacity.” Waste Manage. Res. 38 (2): 134–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X19886920.
Omidi, G. H., T. V. Prasad, J. C. Thomas, and K. W. Brown. 1996. “The influence of amendments on the volumetric shrinkage and integrity of compacted clay soils used in landfill liners.” Water Air Soil Pollut. 86 (1–4): 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00279161.
Peng, Y., H. Liu, C. Li, X. Ding, X. Deng, and C. Wang. 2021. “The detailed particle breakage around the pile in coral sand.” Acta Geotech. 16 (6): 1971–1981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-020-01089-2.
Puppala, A. J., T. Manosuthikij, and B. C. S. Chittoori. 2014. “Swell and shrinkage strain prediction models for expansive clays.” Eng. Geol. 168: 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.10.017.
Pusch, R., and R. N. Yong. 2006. Microstructure of smectite clays and engineering performance. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Sheng, S. X., Y. Dou, X. Z. Tao, et al. 1999. Specification of soil test. [In Chinese.] Beijing: Ministry of Water Resources, PRC, China Water and Power Press.
Sivapullaiah, P. V., A. Sridharan, and V. K. Stalin. 2000. “Hydraulic conductivity of bentonite–sand mixtures.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal 37 (2): 406–413. https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-120.
Sridharan, A., and K. Prakash. 2000. “Shrinkage limit of soil mixtures.” Geotech. Test. J. 23 (1): 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11118J.
Sun, W.-J., and Y.-J. Cui. 2018. “Investigating the microstructure changes for silty soil during drying.” Geotechnique 68 (4): 370–373. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.16.P.165.
Sun, Y. F., Y. Xiao, and K. F. Hanif. 2015. “Compressibility dependence on grain size distribution and relative density in sands.” Sci. China-Technol. Sci. 58 (3): 443–448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-015-5768-5.
Tan, Y., J. Chen, and C. Benson. 2022. “Predicting hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners using a neural network algorithm.” In Geo-Congress 2022, 21–28. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Tan, Y., H. Zhang, D. He, and G. Zhang. 2019. “Deterioration of exposed buffer block: Desiccation shrinkage and cracking.” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 78 (7): 5431–5444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01475-5.
Tan, Y., H. Zhang, and Y. Wang. 2020. “Evaporation and shrinkage processes of compacted bentonite–sand mixtures.” Soils and Foundations 60 (2): 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2020.03.008.
Tan, Y., H. Zhang, T. Zhang, G. Zhang, D. He, and Z. Ding. 2021a. “Anisotropic hydro-mechanical behavior of full-scale compacted bentonite–sand blocks.” Eng. Geol. 287: 106093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106093.
Tan, Y., G. P. Zhou, Z. N. Ding, and H. Y. Zhang. 2021b. “Effect of desiccation on the hydraulic conductivity of compacted bentonite–sand blocks.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 861 (4): 042122. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/861/4/042122.
Tang, Q., T. Katsumi, T. Inui, and Z. Z. Li. 2014. “Membrane behavior of bentonite-amended compacted clay.” Soils Found. 54 (3): 329–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2014.04.019.
Tay, Y. Y., D. I. Stewart, and T. W. Cousens. 2001. “Shrinkage and desiccation cracking in bentonite–sand landfill liners.” Eng. Geol. 60 (1–4): 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(00)00107-1.
Vilarrasa, V., J. Rutqvist, L. Blanco Martin, and J. Birkholzer. 2016. “Use of a dual-structure constitutive model for predicting the long-term behavior of an expansive clay buffer in a nuclear waste repository.” Int. J. Geomech. 16 (6): D4015005. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000603.
Wan, Y. S., J. Kwong, H. G. Brandes, and R. C. Jones. 2002. “Influence of amorphous clay-size materials on soil plasticity and shrink-swell behavior.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 128 (12): 1026–1031. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2002)128:12(1026).
Wang, Q., X. Y. Ye, S. Y. Wang, S. W. Sloan, and D. C. Sheng. 2016. “Degree of saturation effect on the grout-soil interface shear strength of soil nailing.” In 3rd European conference on unsaturated soils—E-UNSAT 2016, 1–5. Cedex, France: E D P Sciences.
Wang, Y., H. Y. Zhang, Y. Tan, and J. H. Zhu. 2021. “Sealing performance of compacted block joints backfilled with bentonite paste or a particle-powder mixture.” Soils Found. 61 (2): 496–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2021.01.005.
Xiao, Y., H. Liu, Y. Chen, and W. Zhang. 2014. “Particle size effects in granular soils under true triaxial conditions.” Geotechnique 64 (8): 667–672. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.14.T.002.
Xiao, Y., L. Long, T. Matthew Evans, H. Zhou, H. Liu, and A. W. Stuedlein. 2019a. “Effect of particle shape on stress–dilatancy responses of medium-dense sands.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 145 (2): 04018105. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001994.
Xiao, Y., G. Ma, B. Nan, and J. S. McCartney. 2020a. “Thermal conductivity of granular soil mixtures with contrasting particle shapes.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 146 (5): 06020004. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002243.
Xiao, Y., M. Meng, Q. Chen, and B. Nan. 2018a. “Friction and dilatancy angles of granular soils incorporating effects of shearing modes.” Int. J. Geomech. 18 (11): 06018027. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001289.
Xiao, Y., M. Q. Meng, H. Chen, X. He, J. Y. Ran, and W. C. Shi. 2018b. “Nonlinear regression model for peak-failure strength of rockfill materials in general stress space.” Geosci. Front. 9 (6): 1699–1709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.07.001.
Xiao, Y., M. Q. Meng, A. Daouadji, Q. S. Chen, Z. J. Wu, and X. Jiang. 2020b. “Effects of particle size on crushing and deformation behaviors of rockfill materials.” Geosci. Front. 11 (2): 375–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2018.10.010.
Xiao, Y., C. Wang, Z. Zhang, H. Liu, and Z.-y Yin. 2021. “Constitutive modeling for two sands under high pressure.” Int. J. Geomech. 21 (5): 04021042. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001987.
Xiao, Y., Z. Yuan, J. Lin, J. Ran, B. Dai, J. Chu, and H. Liu. 2019b. “Effect of particle shape of glass beads on the strength and deformation of cemented sands.” Acta Geotech. 14 (6): 2123–2131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-019-00830-w.
Xu, L., W. M. Ye, B. Chen, Y. G. Chen, and Y. Cui. 2016. “Experimental investigations on thermo-hydro-mechanical properties of compacted GMZ01 bentonite–sand mixture using as buffer materials.” Eng. Geol. 213: 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.08.015.
Zeng, Z., Y. J. Cui, N. Conil, and J. Talandier. 2020. “Experimental investigation and modeling of the hydraulic conductivity of saturated bentonite–claystone mixture.” Int. J. Geomech. 20 (10): 04020184. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001817.
Zhang, H., J. Liu, S. Cui, and J. Liang. 2010. “Controlling mechanism of quartz sand content on shear strength of bentonite–sand mixtures as buffer/backfill material.” [In Chinese.] Chin J Rock Mech Eng 29 (12): 2533–2542.
Zhang, H., Y. Tan, F. Zhu, D. He, and J. Zhu. 2019. “Shrinkage property of bentonite–sand mixtures as influenced by sand content and water salinity.” Constr. Build. Mater. 224: 78–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.051.
Zhang, L., D. A. Sun, and D. Jia. 2016. “Shear strength of GMZ07 bentonite and its mixture with sand saturated with saline solution.” Appl. Clay Sci. 132-133: 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.08.004.
Zhou, L., H. Zhang, M. Yan, H. Chen, and M. Zhang. 2013. “Laboratory determination of migration of Eu(III) in compacted bentonite–sand mixtures as buffer/backfill material for high-level waste disposal.” Appl. Radiat. Isot. 82: 139–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2013.07.004.
Zhou, Y., and R. K. Rowe. 2005. “Modeling of clay liner desiccation.” Int. J. Geomech. 5 (1): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1532-3641(2005)5:1(1).
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 22 • Issue 8 • August 2022
Copyright
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: May 17, 2021
Accepted: Feb 25, 2022
Published online: Jun 9, 2022
Published in print: Aug 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Nov 9, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.