Life-Cycle Assessment of Tertiary Treatment Technologies to Treat Secondary Municipal Wastewater for Reuse in Agricultural Irrigation, Artificial Recharge of Groundwater, and Industrial Usages
Publication: Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 146, Issue 6
Abstract
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) was applied to assess the environmental impacts of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), along with 20 tertiary treatment options for reuse in agricultural irrigation, artificial recharge of groundwater, and industrial usages. Impact was adopted as the life-cycle impact assessment method. The results indicate that the energy consumed by the equipment accounts for 66.59% of environmental impacts of the WWTP. Moreover, consumption of the electricity generated by local biogas generators, instead of using the Iranian national grid, can be beneficial in mitigating the environmental impacts of the WWTP in the form of avoided impacts. LCA showed that a depth filter, granular activated carbon, and chlorination; a membrane bioreactor and chlorination; ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and chlorination; and ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, a depth filter, coagulation/flocculation, and chlorination had the lowest environmental impacts for reuse in agricultural irrigation, artificial recharge of groundwater, cooling towers and other industries, and boilers, respectively. Energy consumption of tertiary treatment technologies is the primary contributor to the environmental impacts. This study indicated that because of high electricity and chemical consumption of the options for reuse in industries, their environmental impacts are higher than those of other options.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank PRé Consultants for providing a free faculty license of SimaPro.
References
Alarcon, J., A. Rodriguez Martinez, and I. Herrera Orozco. 2011. “Life cycle assessment to municipal wastewater treatment plant.” Chem. Eng. Trans. 24 (Jan): 1345–1350. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1124225.
Al-Sarkal, T., and H. A. Arafat. 2013. “Ultrafiltration versus sedimentation-based pretreatment in Fujairah-1 RO plant: Environmental impact study.” Desalination 317 (May): 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2013.02.019.
Asano, T., F. Burton, H. Leverenz, R. Tsuchihashi, and G. Tchobanoglous. 2007. Water reuse: Issues, technologies, and applications. 5th ed. New York: Mcgraw-Hill.
Asano, T., and J. A. Cotruvo. 2004. “Groundwater recharge with reclaimed municipal wastewater: Health and regulatory considerations.” Water Res. 38 (8): 1941–1951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2004.01.023.
Biswas, W. K. 2009. “Life cycle assessment of seawater desalinization in western Australia.” World Acad. Sci. Eng. Technol. 56 (Aug): 369–375. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1333865.
Bonton, A., C. Bouchard, B. Barbeau, and S. Jedrzejak. 2012. “Comparative life cycle assessment of water treatment plants.” Desalination 284 (Jan): 42–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.08.035.
Broens, L., N. Liebrand, H. Futselaar, and J. C. de Armas Torrent. 2004. “Effluent reuse at Barranco Seco (Spain): A case study.” Desalination 167 (Aug): 13–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2004.06.106.
Brtalik, K., M. Feraud, K. Huniu, D. Jennings, H. Kahan, and G. Travis. 2012. Assessing decentralized wastewater treatment options in Santa Barbabra County. Santa Barbara, CA: Univ. of California.
Czepiel, P. M., P. M. Crill, and R. C. Harriss. 1993. “Methane emissions from municipal wastewater treatment processes.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 27 (12): 2472–2477. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00048a025.
De Feo, G., and C. Ferrara. 2017. “A procedure for evaluating the most environmentally sound alternative between two on-site small-scale wastewater treatment systems.” J. Clean. Prod. 164 (Oct): 124–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.205.
Delft University of Technology. 2015. “Micro and ultrafiltration.” Accessed January 15, 2015. https://ocw.tudelft.nl/wp-content/uploads/Micro-and-ultrafiltration-1.pdf.
Downing, J., E. Bracco, F. Green, A. Ku, T. Lundquist, I. Zubieta, and W. Oswald. 2002. “Low cost reclamation using the Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond System® Technology and reverse osmosis.” Water Sci. Technol. 45 (1): 117–125. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0016.
Emmerson, R. H. C., G. K. Morse, J. N. Lester, and D. R. Edge. 1995. “The life cycle analysis of small scale sewage treatment processes.” Water Environ. J. 9 (3): 317–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1995.tb00945.x.
Feyzi, M. 2013. Life cycle assessment of wastewater treatment plants. Tehran, Iran: Univ. of Tehran, School of Civil Engineering.
Frischknecht, R., R. Itten, M. Stucki, P. Scherrer, and I. Psi. 2012. Life cycle inventories of electricity mixes and grid, version 1.3. Uster, Switzerland: Treeze.
Gabarrell, X., M. Font, T. Vicent, G. Caminal, M. Sarrà, and P. Blánquez. 2012. “A comparative life cycle assessment of two treatment technologies for the Grey Lanaset G textile dye: Biodegradation by Trametes versicolor and granular activated carbon adsorption.” Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17 (5): 613–624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0385-z.
Garfí, M., L. Flores, and I. Ferrer. 2017. “Life cycle assessment of wastewater treatment systems for small communities: Activated sludge, constructed wetlands and high rate algal ponds.” J. Clean. Prod. 161 (Sep): 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.116.
Haarhoff, J., and B. Van der Merwe. 1996. “Twenty-five years of wastewater reclamation in Windhoek, Namibia.” Water Sci. Technol. 33 (10–11): 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-1223(96)00403-9.
Huang, Y.-D., H.-H. Hunag, C. P. Chu, and Y.-J. Chung. 2014. “Assessment of municipal effluent reclamation process based on the information of cost analysis and environmental impacts.” Br. J. Environ. Clim. Change 4 (1): 152–165. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJECC/2014/8574.
ISO. 2006a. Environmental management—Life cycle assessment—Principles and framework. ISO 14040. Geneva: ISO.
ISO. 2006b. Environmental management—Life cycle assessment—Requirements and guidelines. ISO 14044. Geneva: ISO.
Jolliet, O., M. Margni, R. Charles, S. Humbert, J. Payet, G. Rebitzer, and R. Rosenbaum. 2003. “Impact : A new life cycle impact assessment methodology.” Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 8 (6): 324–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02978505.
Kalbar, P. P., S. Karmakar, and S. R. Asolekar. 2013. “Assessment of wastewater treatment technologies: Life cycle approach.” Water Environ. J. 27 (2): 261–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12006.
Krzeminski, P., J. H. van der Graaf, and J. B. van Lier. 2012. “Specific energy consumption of membrane bioreactor (MBR) for sewage treatment.” Water Sci. Technol. 65 (2): 380–392. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.861.
Lahnsteiner, J., and R. Mittal. 2010. “Reuse and recycling of secondary effluents in refineries employing advanced multi-barrier systems.” Water Sci. Technol. 62 (8): 1813–1820. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.520.
Lutterbeck, C. A., L. T. Kist, D. R. Lopez, F. V. Zerwes, and Ê. L. Machado. 2017. “Life cycle assessment of integrated wastewater treatment systems with constructed wetlands in rural areas.” J. Clean. Prod. 148 (Apr): 527–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.024.
Machado, A. P., L. Urbano, A. G. Brito, P. Janknecht, J. J. Salas, and R. Nogueira. 2007. “Life cycle assessment of wastewater treatment options for small and decentralized communities: Energy saving systems versus activated sludge.” Water Sci. Technol. 56 (3): 15–22. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.497.
Niblick, B., R. B. Theregowda, D. Dzombak, R. Vidic, and A. E. Landis. 2012. “Evaluating sustainability tools and metrics for application to reuse of treated municipal wastewater in power plant cooling systems.” In Proc., Conf.: LCA XII Int. Conf., 25–27. Tacoma, WA: American Center for Life Cycle Assessment.
Ortiz, M., R. G. Raluy, and L. Serra. 2007. “Life cycle assessment of water treatment technologies: Wastewater and water-reuse in a small town.” Desalination 204 (1–3): 121–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.04.026.
Pasqualino, J. C., M. Meneses, and F. Castells. 2011. “Life cycle assessment of urban wastewater reclamation and reuse alternatives.” J. Ind. Ecol. 15 (1): 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00293.x.
Pintilie, L., C. M. Torres, C. Teodosiu, and F. Castells. 2016. “Urban wastewater reclamation for industrial reuse: An LCA case study.” J. Clean. Prod. 139 (Dec): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.209.
Polruang, S., S. Sirivithayapakorn, and R. P. N. Talang. 2018. “A comparative life cycle assessment of municipal wastewater treatment plants in Thailand under variable power schemes and effluent management programs.” J. Clean. Prod. 172 (Jan): 635–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.183.
PRé Consultants. 2014. SimaPro database manual methods library. Amersfoort, Netherlands: PRé Consultants.
Pretel, R., A. Robles, M. V. Ruano, A. Seco, and J. Ferrer. 2013. “Environmental impact of submerged anaerobic MBR (SAnMBR) technology used to treat urban wastewater at different temperatures.” Bioresour. Technol. 149 (Dec): 532–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.09.060.
Ribera Simon, G. 2013. “Technical and environmental viability of membrane technologies in water treatment: NF in drinking water process and MBR for wastewater reuse.” Accessed January 20, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/116491.
Risch, E., C. Boutin, P. Roux, S. Gillot, and A. Héduit. 2011. “LCA in wastewater treatment–applicability and limitations for constructed wetland systems: Using vertical reed bed filters.” In Proc., Conf.: LCM 2011 Int. Conf. on Life Cycle Management. Berlin: Technische Universität Berlin.
Roquette, C. L. P., A. C. Guimaraes, and L. L. A. Santos. 1998. “Integrated rural sustainable development with aquatic plants.” In Proc., Abstracts: 6th Int. Conf. on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control. Aguas de Sao Pedro, Brazil: IWA Publishing.
Saetta, D., S. K. L. Ishii, W. E. Pine III, and T. H. Boyer. 2015. “Case study and LCA of coastal utility facing saltwater intrusion.” AWWA 107 (10): 543–558. https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2015.107.0148.
Seib, M. 2009. “Life cycle assessment of a cluster system constructed treatment wetland.” Accessed September 1, 2015. https://businessdocbox.com/71078460-Green_Solutions/Life-cycle-assessment-of-a-cluster-system-constructed-treatment-wetland-matt-seib.html.
Sharaai, A. H., N. Z. Mahmood, and A. H. Sulaiman. 2010. “Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) of potable water production in Malaysia: A comparison among different technology used in water treatment plant.” EnvironmentAsia 3 (Jan): 95–102.
Spellman, F. R. 2013. Water & wastewater infrastructure: Energy efficiency and sustainability. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Tarnacki, K., M. Meneses, T. Melin, J. Van Medevoort, and A. Jansen. 2012. “Environmental assessment of desalination processes: Reverse osmosis and Memstill®.” Desalination 296 (Jun): 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.04.009.
Tchobanoglous, G., F. Burton, and H. D. Stensel. 2003. Wastewater engineering: Treatment and reuse. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tehran Sewerage. 2015. A brief description of Tehran metropolitan sewerage project. Tehran, Iran: Office of Public Communication.
Tehran Water Regional Authority. 2014. Water resources report. Tehran, Iran: Tehran Water Regional Authority, Office of Studies.
Theregowda, R., R. Vidic, D. A. Dzombak, and A. E. Landis. 2015. “Life cycle impact analysis of tertiary treatment alternatives to treat secondary municipal wastewater for reuse in cooling systems.” Environ. Prog. Sustainable Energy 34 (1): 178–187. https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.11938.
USEPA. 2012. Guidelines for water reuse. Washington, DC: USEPA.
Vaseashta, A. 2015. Life cycle analysis of nanoparticles: Reducing risk and liability. Lancaster, PA: DEStech.
Va Tech Wabag. 2014. “Water reuse & recycling: Boosting water supply security.” Accessed March 25, 2015. http://docplayer.net/23931688-Water-reuse-recycling-boosting-water-supply-security.html.
Wang, X. H., X. Wang, G. Huppes, R. Heijungs, and N. Q. Ren. 2015. “Environmental implications of increasingly stringent sewage discharge standards in municipal wastewater treatment plants: Case study of a cool area of China.” J. Cleaner Prod. 94 (May): 278–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.02.007.
WateReuse. 2015. “WateReuse Pacific Northwest.” Accessed September 19, 2015. https://watereuse.org/watereuse-research/04-04-honolulu-membrane-bioreactor-pilot-study/.
Zhang, Z., and F. Wilson. 2000. “Life cycle assessment of a sewage-treatment plant in South-east Asia.” Water Environ. J. 14 (1): 51–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.2000.tb00226.x.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 146 • Issue 6 • June 2020
Copyright
©2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jul 20, 2019
Accepted: Oct 21, 2019
Published online: Mar 20, 2020
Published in print: Jun 1, 2020
Discussion open until: Aug 20, 2020
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.