Strength, Microstructure, and Deformation Behavior of Frozen Cemented Tailing Material
Publication: Journal of Cold Regions Engineering
Volume 36, Issue 1
Abstract
Cemented paste backfill (CPB) is a novel cementitious construction material that is used extensively for underground mine support and/or mine waste management worldwide. CPB consists of a mix of tailings (mine waste), water, and binder. In other words, tailings are transformed into construction materials. Key engineering properties required for the geotechnical design of CPB structures include strength and deformation behavior. However, there is a paucity of technical data and information about the effect of sub-zero temperatures on these properties. This paper presents an experimental study that focuses on the investigation of the influence of sub-zero curing temperatures on the strength, deformation behavior, and microstructure (e.g., pore structure, porosity, and binder hydration products) of CPB. Several CPB samples with various combinations of compositions (e.g., binder type, cement amount, and water content) cured at different temperatures (sub-zero and room temperatures) and times (7–90 days) are tested with regard to strength, stress–strain behavior, and microstructural characteristics. It is found that frozen CPB (FCPB) exhibits remarkable strength compared with unfrozen CPB and has a great resemblance to frozen soil. No obvious peak stress is observed from FCPB samples during compression, and strain hardening phenomena are commonly seen after the initial yield point. Factors that may affect the behavior of FCPB are thoroughly examined. Binder contents and types are found to be irrelevant; in contrast, water content plays a dominant role. This negligible effect of binder on the properties of FCPB is due to the inhibition of the binder hydration by sub-zero curing temperatures. FCPBs show coarser pore structure than unfrozen CPBs. The results obtained in this study have significant practical engineering applications for mines located in permafrost or cold regions.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the University of Ottawa for their financial support as well Cement Lafarge, Inc., for providing the binders (slag, fly ash) used in this study.
References
Aldhafeeri, Z., and M. Fall. 2017. “Sulphate induced changes in the reactivity of cemented tailings backfill.” Int. J. Miner. Process. 166: 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.minpro.2017.06.007.
Aldhafeeri, Z., M. Fall, M. Pokharel, and Z. Pouramini. 2016. “Temperature dependence of the reactivity of cemented paste backfill.” Appl. Geochem. 72: 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2016.06.005.
Anderberg, Y. 1997. “Spalling phenomena of HPC and OC.” In NIST Workshop on Fire Performance of High Strength Concrete in Gaithersburg, 69–73. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Brackebusch, F., and J. Shillabeer. 1998. “Use of paste for tailings disposal.” In Proc., 6th Int. Symp. on Mining with Backfill, AusIMM, Publication, 53–58. Carlton South, Australia: Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Chang, S. 2016. “Strength development of freezing man-made soils that contain cement: Freezing cemented tailings.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Civil, Structural and Transportation Engineering, Paper No. 143. Ontario, ON: International ASET Inc.
Chatterji, S. 1999. “Aspects of the freezing process in a porous material–water system: Part 1. Freezing and the properties of water and ice.” Cement Concr. Res. 29 (4): 627–630. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00035-6.
Cui, L., and M. Fall. 2016a. “An evolutive elasto-plastic model for cemented paste backfill.” Comput. Geotech. 71: 19–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2015.08.013.
Cui, L., and M. Fall. 2016b. “Mechanical and thermal properties of cemented tailings materials at early ages: Influence of initial temperature, curing stress and drainage conditions.” Constr. Build. Mater. 125: 553–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.08.080.
Cui, L., and M. Fall. 2017a. “Modeling of pressure on retaining structures for underground fill mass.” Tunnelling Underground Space Technol. 69: 94–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2017.06.010.
Cui, L., and M. Fall. 2017b. “Multiphysics model for consolidation behavior of cemented paste backfill.” Int. J. Geomech. 17 (3): 04016077. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000743.
Czernin, W. 1980. Cement chemistry and physics for civil engineers. Gütersloh, Germany: Bauverlag.
Dillon, H. B., and O. B. Andersland. 1966. “Predicting unfrozen water contents in frozen soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 3 (2): 53–60. https://doi.org/10.1139/t66-007.
Ercikdi, B., A. Kesimal, F. Cihangir, H. Deveci, and I. Alp. 2009. “Cemented paste backfill of sulphide-rich tailings: Importance of binder type and dosage.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 31 (4): 268–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.01.008.
Fall, M., M. Benzaazoua, and S. Ouellet. 2005. “Experimental characterization of the influence of tailings fineness and density on the quality of cemented paste backfill.” Miner. Eng. 18 (1): 41–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2004.05.012.
Fall, M., M. Benzaazoua, and E. G. Saa. 2008. “Mix proportioning of underground cemented tailings backfill.” Tunnelling Underground Space Technol. 23 (1): 80–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2006.08.005.
Fall, M., J. C. Célestin, M. Pokharel, and M. Touré. 2010. “A contribution to understanding the effects of curing temperature on the mechanical properties of mine cemented tailings backfill.” Eng. Geol. 114 (3–4): 397–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.05.016.
Fall, M., and M. Pokharel. 2010. “Coupled effects of sulphate and temperature on the strength development of cemented tailings backfills: Portland cement-paste backfill.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 32 (10): 819–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2010.08.002.
Fall, M., and S. Samb. 2008. “Effect of high temperature on strength and microstructural properties of cemented paste backfill.” J. Fire Saf. 44 (44): 642–665.
Ferraris, C. F., V. A. Hackley, and A. I. Avilés. 2004. “Measurement of particle size distribution in Portland cement powder: Analysis of ASTM round robin studies.” Cem. Concr. Aggregates 26 (2): 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1520/CCA11920.
Ghirian, A., and M. Fall. 2013. “Coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical–chemical behaviour of cemented paste backfill in column experiments. Part I: Physical, hydraulic and thermal processes and characteristics.” Eng. Geol. 164: 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.01.015.
Ghirian, A., and M. Fall. 2016. “Strength evolution and deformation behaviour of cemented paste backfill at early ages: Effect of curing stress, filling strategy and drainage.” Int. J. Min. Sci. Technol. 26 (5): 809–817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2016.05.039.
Grice, T. 2001. “Recent mine developments in Australia.” In Proc., 7th Int. Symp. on Mining with Backfill (MINEFILL), 351–357. Seattle, WA: Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration.
Haiqiang, J., M. Fall, and L. Cui. 2016. “Yield stress of cemented paste backfill in sub-zero environments: Experimental results.” Miner. Eng. 92: 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2016.03.014.
Han, F. 2011. “Geotechnical behaviour of frozen mine backfills.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Ottawa.
Hassani, F., and J. Archibald. 1998. Mine backfill. Montreal: Canadian Institute of Mine, Metallurgy and Petroleum.
Haynes, F. D., and J. A. Karalius. 1977. “Effect of temperature on the strength of frozen silt.” Special report (U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory), Vol. 77. Hanover, NH: U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.
Hou, C., W. Zhu, B. Yan, K. Guan, and J. Du. 2020. “The effects of temperature and binder content on the behavior of frozen cemented tailings backfill at early ages.” Constr. Build. Mater. 239: 117752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117752.
Husem, M., and S. Gozutok. 2005. “The effects of low temperature curing on the compressive strength of ordinary and high performance concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 19 (1): 49–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2004.04.033.
Jiang, H., and M. Fall. 2017. “Yield stress and strength of saline cemented tailings materials in sub-zero environments: Slag-paste backfill.” J. Sustainable Cem. Based Mater. 6 (5): 314–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2017.1280428.
Jiang, H., M. Fall, and L. Cui. 2017. “Freezing behaviour of cemented paste backfill material in column experiments.” Constr. Build. Mater. 147 (30): 837–846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.002.
Kesimal, A., E. Yilmaz, B. Ercikdi, I. Alp, and H. Deveci. 2005. “Effect of properties of tailings and binder on the short- and long-term strength and stability of cemented paste backfill.” Mater. Lett. 59 (28): 3703–3709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2005.06.042.
Kietzig, A.-M., S. G. Hatzikiriakos, and P. Enzlegos. 2010. “Physics of ice friction.” J. Appl. Phys. 107 (8): 081101. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3340792.
Landriault, D. 1995. “Paste backfill mix design for Canadian underground hard rock mining.” In Proc., 97th Annual General Meeting of CIM. Rock Mechanics and Strata Control Session, 229–238.
Li, W., and M. Fall. 2016. “Sulphate effect on the early age strength and self-desiccation of cemented paste backfill.” Constr. Build. Mater. 106: 296–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.124.
Liu, L., Z. Fang, C. Qi, B. Zhang, L. Guo, and K. I. Song. 2018. “Experimental investigation on the relationship between pore characteristics and unconfined compressive strength of cemented paste backfill.” Constr. Build. Mater. 179: 254–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.224.
Lu, G., and M. Fall. 2017. “Modelling blast wave propagation in a subsurfacegeotechnical structure made of an evolutive porous material.” Mech. Mater. 108: 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmat.2017.03.003.
Lu, G., M. Fall, and L. Cui. 2017. “A multiphysics-viscoplastic cap model for simulating blast response of cemented tailings backfill.” J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 9 (3): 551–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2017.03.005.
Lv, X., and H. Zhou. 2020. “Shear characteristics and stress–strain mathematical model of waste polyester textile reinforced clay.” Sci. Rep. 10: 5205. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-62168-8.
Neuber, H., and R. Wolters. 1977. Mechanical behaviour of frozen soils under triaxial compression. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada.
Neville, A. M. 1981. Properties of concrete. 3rd ed. Essex: Longman.
Noumowé, A. 1995. “Effet des hautes températures (20°C–600°C) sur le béton.” Ph.D. thesis, Institut National des Sciences Appliquées.
Orejarena, L., and M. Fall. 2008. “Mechanical response of a mine composite material to extreme heat.” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 67 (3): 387–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-008-0148-z.
Orejarena, L., and M. Fall. 2010. “The use of artificial neural networks to predict the effect of sulphate attack on the strength of cemented paste backfill.” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 69 (4): 659–670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-010-0326-7.
Popovics, S. 1992. Concrete materials. Properties, specifications, and testing. Norwich, NY: William Andrew.
Potvin, Y., and E. Thomas. 2005. Handbook on mine fill. Crawley, WA: Australian Centre for Geomechanics.
Rempel, A. W., J. Wettlaufer, and M. Worster. 2004. “Premelting dynamics in a continuum model of frost heave.” J. Fluid Mech. 498: 227–244. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112003006761.
Roshani, A., M. Fall, and K. Kennedy. 2017. “Impact of drying on geo-environmental properties of mature fine tailings pre-dewatered with super absorbent polymer.” Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 14 (3): 453–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-016-1162-5.
Sayles, F. H. 1968. Creep of frozen sands. Technical Rep. DTIC Document.
Sayles, F. H., and D. L. Carbee. 1981. “Strength of frozen silt as a function of ice content and dry unit weight.” Eng. Geol. 18 (1–4): 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(81)90046-6.
Sayles, F. H., and D. Haines. 1974. Creep of frozen silt and clay. Technical Rep. DTIC Document.
Taha, A. 2010. “Interface shear behavior of sensitive marine clays-Leda clay.” Master thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Ottawa.
Thiessen, K. 2012. Durability of cemented paste backfill in sub-zero environments. M.Eng Rep. Univ. of Ottawa.
Ting, J. M., R. Torrence, and C. C. Ladd. 1983. “Mechanisms of strength for frozen sand.” J. Geotech. Eng. 109 (10): 1286–1302. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1983)109:10(1286).
Tsytovich, N. A. 1966. Principles of Geocryology (Permafrost Studies). Part II, Engineering Geocryology. Chapter III, Basic Mechanics of Freezing, Frozen and Thawing Soils, 28–79. Moscow: Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
Tsytovich, N., and M. Sumgin. 1959. Principles of mechanics of frozen ground. Technical Rep. DTIC Document. Hanover, NH: U.S. Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment, Corps of Engineers.
Udd, J. E. 2006. “A bibliography on deep mining.” In Proc., Core Project on Deep Mining. Ontario, ON: Canada. Natural Resources Canada.
US Silica Company. 2019. “Ground silica: Reliable, repeatable performance.” Accessed January 20, 2019. https://www.ussilica.com/materials/ground-silica.
Vyalov, S., and S. Tsytovich. 1955. “Cohesion of frozen soil.” Dokl. Akad. Nauk. 104: 527–529.
Wang, Y., M. Fall, and A. Wu. 2016. “Initial temperature-dependence of strength development and self-desiccation in cemented paste backfill that contains sodium silicate.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 67: 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.01.005.
Wayment, W. R. 1978. “Backfilling with tailings—A new approach.” In Vol. 19 of Proc., 12th Canadian Rock Mechanics Symp., Mining with Backfill. Quebec: Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 111–116.
Wijeweera, H., and R. C. Joshi. 1990. “Compressive strength behavior of fine-grained frozen soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 27 (4): 472–483. https://doi.org/10.1139/t90-062.
Williams, P. 1963. “Specific heats and unfrozen water content of frozen soils.” In Proc., 1st Canadian Conf. Permafrost, 109–126. Ontario, ON: National Research Council Canada. Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics.
Xu, X., Y. Lai, Y. Dong, and J. Qi. 2011. “Laboratory investigation on strength and deformation characteristics of ice-saturated frozen sandy soil.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 69 (1): 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2011.07.005.
Yilmaz, E. 2018. “Stope depth effect on field behaviour and performance of cemented paste backfills.” Int. J. Min. Reclam. Environ. 32 (4): 273–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/17480930.2017.1285858.
Yilmaz, E., A. Kesimal, and B. Ercikdi. 2003. “The factors affecting the strength and stability of paste backfill.” Yerbilimleri—Turkish Earth Sci. 28 (2): 155–169.
Zhang, M., X. Zhang, Y. Lai, and J. Lu. 2020. “Variations of the temperatures and volumetric unfrozen water contents of fine-grained soils during a freezing–thawing process.” Acta Geotech. 15: 595–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-018-0720-z.
Zhou, Q., and F. P. Glasser. 2001. “Thermal stability and decomposition mechanisms of ettringite at <120°C.” Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (9): 1333–1339. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00558-0.
Zhou, X., J. Zhou, W. Kinzelbach, and F. Stauffer. 2014. “Simultaneous measurement of unfrozen water content and ice content in frozen soil using gamma ray attenuation and TDR.” Water Resour. Res. 50 (12): 9630–9655. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR015640.
Zhu, Y., and D. L. Carbee. 1987. Creep and strength behavior of frozen silt in uniaxial compression. Washington, DC: US Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Cold Regions Engineering
Volume 36 • Issue 1 • March 2022
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 26, 2021
Accepted: Aug 11, 2021
Published online: Nov 22, 2021
Published in print: Mar 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Apr 22, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Yibo Zhou, Mamadou Fall, Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Cemented Paste Backfill with Chloride-Free Antifreeze Additives in Subzero Environments, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-14931, 35, 6, (2023).
- Yibo Zhou, Mamadou Fall, Strength, Deformation Behavior, and Microstructure of Cement Paste Backfill with Calcium Chloride in Subzero Environments, Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 10.1061/JCRGEI.CRENG-685, 37, 2, (2023).
- Zheng Pan, Keping Zhou, Yunmin Wang, Yun Lin, Fahad Saleem, Comparative Analysis of Strength and Deformation Behavior of Cemented Tailings Backfill under Curing Temperature Effect, Materials, 10.3390/ma15103491, 15, 10, (3491), (2022).