Effect of Nitrification and GAC Filtration on Copper and Lead Leaching in Home Plumbing Systems
Publication: Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 134, Issue 7
Abstract
Nitrification and granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration impact leaching of lead/copper to potable water under typical home plumbing configurations. GAC filters removed the disinfectant and caused rapid establishment of nitrification in chloraminated systems. The potential adverse consequences of whole house GAC filters deserve increased scrutiny in chloraminated systems. The lower pH values from nitrification and other microbes during overnight stagnation in pipes can markedly increase (up to 800%) lead and copper contamination of water.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant No. NSFDMI-0329474, American Water Works Association Research Foundation (AWWARF), and Blacksburg-Christiansburg VPI Water Authority and Virginia Water Resources Research Center. The opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect the views of NSF, AWWARF, and VPI. The writers would also like to thank Rebecca Lattyak, Mariaam Waheed, Meredith Raetz, and Jeff Coyne for helping with water changes and sample collections.
References
Atlas, D., Coombs, J., and Zajicek, O. T. (1982). “The corrosion of copper by chlorinated drinking waters.” Water Res., 16(5), 693–698.
AWWARF and DVGW-TZW. (1996). Internal corrosion of water distribution systems, 2nd Ed., American Water Works Association Research Foundation, DVGW-Technologiezentrum Wasser., Denver.
Belser, L. W., and Mays, E. L. (1980). “Specific inhibition of nitrite oxidation by chlorate and its use in assessing nitrification in soils and sediments.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 39(3), 505–510.
Boulay, N., and Edwards, M. (2001). “Role of temperature, chlorine, and organic matter in copper corrosion by-product release in soft water.” Water Res., 35(3), 683–690.
Bremer, P. J., Webster, B. J., and Wells, D. B. (2001). “Biocorrosion of copper in potable water.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 93(8), 82–91.
Cantor, A. F., Bushman, J. B., Glodoski, M. S., Kiefer, E., Bersch, R., and Wallenkamp, H. (2006). “Copper pipe failure by microbiologically influenced corrosion.” Mater. Perform., 45(6), 38–41.
Cantor, A. F., Park, J. K., and Vaiyavatjamai, P. (2003). “Effect of chlorine on corrosion in drinking water systems.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 95(5), 112–123.
Clesceri, L. S., Greenberg, A. E., and Eaton, A. D. (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20th Ed., American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation, Washington, D.C.
Davidson, D. (1996). “Effects of arthrobacters, acidovorax delafieldii, and bacillus megaterium colonization on copper solvency in a laboratory test loop.” Biofouling, 9, 279.
Douglas, I., Guthmann, J., Muylwyk, Q., and Snoeyink, V. (2004). “Corrosion control in the city of Ottawa—Comparison of alternatives and case study for lead reduction in drinking water.” Proc., 11th Canadian National Conf. and 2nd Policy Forum on Drinking Water.
Dudi, A. (2004). “Reconsidering lead corrosion in drinking water: Product testing, direct chloramine attack and galvanic corrosion.” Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Va.
Edwards, M., and Boulay, N. (2001). “Organic matter and copper corrosion by-product release: A mechanistic study.” Corros. Sci., 43(1), 1–18.
Edwards, M., and Dudi, A. (2004). “Role of chlorine and chloramine in corrosion of lead-bearing plumbing materials.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 96(10), 69–81.
Edwards, M., and Ferguson, J. F. (1993). “Accelerated testing of copper corrosion.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 85(10), 105–113.
Edwards, M., Jacobs, S., and Taylor, R. (2000). “The blue water phenomenon.” J. AWWA, 92(7), 72–82.
Edwards, M., Marshall, B., Zhang, Y., Abbott, S., and Strickhouser, A. (2005). “Unintended consequences of chloramine hit home.” AWWA WQTC, Quebec City, Canada.
Edwards, M., and Triantafyllidou, S. (2007). “Chloride to sulfate mass ratio and lead leaching to water.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 99(7), 96–109.
Feben, D. (1935). “Nitrifying bacteria in water supplies.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 27(4), 439–447.
Federal Register. (1991). “Lead and copper—Final rule.”
Garret, J. H. (1891). The action of water on lead, H. K. Lewis, London.
Grady, C. P. L., Daigger, G. T., and Lim, H. C. (1999). Biological wastewater treatment, 2nd Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York.
Hong, P. K., and MacCauley, Y. (1998). “Corrosion and leaching of copper tubing exposed to chlorinated drinking water.” Water, Air, Soil Pollut., 108, 457–471.
Korshin, G. V., Ferguson, J. F., and Lancaster, A. N. (2000). “Influence of natural organic matter on the corrosion of leaded brass in potable water.” Corros. Sci., 42(1), 53–66.
Korshin, G. V., Ferguson, J. F., and Lancaster, A. N. (2005). “Influence of natural organic matter on the morphology of corroding lead surfaces and behavior of lead-containing particles.” Water Res., 39(5), 811–818.
Korshin, G. V., Perry, S. A. L., Edwards, M. A., and Ferguson, J. F. (1994). “Influence of natural organic matter on corrosion of copper in potable waters.” Water Research: Proc., American Water Works Association Annual Conf., 797–818.
Kristiansen, H. (1982). “Corrosion of copper in soft water with different content of humic substances and various temperatures.” VATTEN, 38, 181–188.
Loveless, J. E., and Painter, H. A. (1968). “The influence of metal ion concentrations and pH value on the growth of a Nitrosomonas strain isolated from activated sludge.” J. Gen. Microbiol., 52(1), 1–14.
Lykins, J. B. W., Clark, R. M., and Goodrich, J. A. (1992). Point-of-use/point-of-entry for drinking water treatment, Lewis, London.
Lytle, D. A., and Schock, M. R. (2005). “Formation of oxides in chlorinated water.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 97(11), 102–114.
Marshall, B., and Edwards, M. (2004). “Evaluation of lead corrosion control strategies in Maui water—Final report.” Virginia Tech.
McFeters, G. A. (1990). Drinking water microbiology—Progress and recent development, Springer, New York.
McNeill, L. S., and Edwards, M. (2001). “Iron pipe corrosion in distribution systems.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 88–100.
Murphy, B., O’Connor, J. T., and O’Connor, T. L. (1997). “Willmar, Minnesota battles copper corrosion—Part 2.” Public Works, 128(12), 44–47.
Reed, B. E., Arunachalam, S., and Thomas, B. (1993). “Removal of lead and cadmium from aqueous waste streams using granular activated carbon (GAC) columns.” Proc., Water Environment Federation 66th Annual Conf. and Exposition.
Rehring, J. P., and Edwards, M. (1996). “Copper corrosion in potable water systems: Impacts of natural organic matter and water treatment processes.” Corrosion (Houston), 52(4), 307–317.
Reiber, S. (1991). “Galvanic stimulation of corrosion on lead-tin solder sweated joints.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 83(7), 83–91.
Reiber, S., and Edwards, M. (1997). “Utility experience and the lead and copper rule.” Drinking Water Res., 7(3), 2–5.
Schock, M. R. (1989). “Understanding corrosion control strategies for lead.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 81(7), 88–100.
Schock, M. R., Harmon, S. M., Swertfeger, J., and Lohmann, R. (2001). “Tetravalent lead: A hitherto unrecognized control of tap water lead contamination.” Proc., AWWA Water Quality Technology Conf.
Scholz, M., and Xu, J. (2002). “Comparison of constructed reed beds with different filter media and macrophytes treating urban stream water contaminated with lead and copper.” Ecol. Eng., 18(3), 385–390.
Skadsen, J. (1993). “Nitrification in a distribution system.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 85(7), 95–103.
Skinner, F. A., and Walker, N. (1961). “Growth of Nitrosomonas europaea in batch and continuous culture.” Arch. Mikrobiol., 38, 339–349.
Snoeyink, V. L., and Jenkins, D. (1980). Water chemistry, Wiley, New York.
Triantafyllidou, S., Parks, J., and Edwards, M. (2007). “Lead particles in potable water.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 96(6), 107–117.
USEPA. (2003). “Analysis and findings of the Gallup Organization’s drinking water customer satisfaction survey.” ⟨http://www.epa.gov/safewater/ccr/pdfs/tools_survey_gallup_customersatification2003.pdf⟩ (July 25, 2007 ).
USEPA. (2005). “Nitrification.” ⟨http://www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/nitrification.pdf⟩ (Dec. 21, 2005 ).
Vahala, R. (2002). “Two step granular activated carbon filtration in drinking water treatment.” Helsinki Univ. of Technology.
Vahala, R., and Laukkanen, R. (1998). “Nitrification in GAC-filtered, UV-disinfected and chlorinated distribution system.” Water Supply, 16(3/4), 245.
Vasquez, F. A., Heaviside, R., Tang, Z., and Taylor, J. S. (2006). “Effects of free chlorine and chloramines on lead release in a distribution system.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 98(2), 144–154.
Water Quality Association (WQA). (2006). “Heterotrophic bacteria in dinking water from POU and POE devices.” ⟨http://www.wqa.org/pdf/technical/HPC200[5].pdf⟩ (Oct. 2006 ).
Webster, B. J., Werner, S. E., Wells, D. B., and Bremer, P. J. (2000). “Microbiologically influenced corrosion of copper in potable water systems—pH effects.” Corrosion (Houston), 56(9), 942–950.
Wilczak, A., Jacangelo, J. G., Marcinko, J. P., Odell, L. H., Kirmeyer, G. J., and Wolfe, R. L. (1996). “Occurrence of nitrification in chloraminated distribution systems.” J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 88(7), 74–85.
Zhang, Y., Love, N., and Edwards, M. (2007). “Nitrification in drinking water systems.” Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol., accepted for publication.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
© 2008 ASCE.
History
Received: Feb 7, 2007
Accepted: Dec 10, 2007
Published online: Jul 1, 2008
Published in print: Jul 2008
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.