Embracing Sustainability in Rigid Pavement Construction: Unveiling Geopolymer Concrete’s Potential with Incorporated Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Aggregates
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 36, Issue 10
Abstract
Reconfiguring practices within the construction industry through the utilization of diverse industrial byproducts is a crucial endeavor. This study was devoted to promoting sustainable construction methodologies while mitigating environmental implications. The focus of the research was the incorporation of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) aggregates into GPC for application as pavement quality concrete (PQC). Leveraging fly ash (FA) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as viable aluminosilicate sources emerged as a judicious strategy for formulating blends that exhibit exceptional attributes at ambient temperatures, thereby circumventing the challenges posed by impractical on-site oven curing. Natural coarse aggregates were replaced with RAP at varying percentages ranging over 25% to 100% and the performance of the binders was assessed across a range of NaOH molarities (10M to 16M). The 14-M, 50% RAP mix exhibited superior strength and durability, achieving permissible compressive and flexural strength after just 7 days of ambient curing (41.80 and 4.72 MPa, respectively), in contrast to the 28 day of curing required for conventional cement concrete. This designed mix also showcased significant resistance to surface abrasion and carbonation, along with exemplary thermal stability as determined by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Upon exposure to a 2% concentration (to gauge performance in aggressive environments), higher RAP replacement levels revealed to influence mass and strength loss, but the effect of molarity remained quite moderate. Furthermore, toxicity characteristic leaching potential (TCLP) tests confirmed the immobilization of heavy metals in GPC blends with integrated RAP, thereby endorsing their environmental suitability for the construction of rigid pavements.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge with gratitude the financial assistance provided by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH), India, to support their ongoing research work through Grant No. IIT-1520-CED.
References
Albidah, A. S. 2023. “Influence of reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregate on the performance of metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete at ambient and elevated temperatures.” Constr. Build. Mater. 402 (Oct): 132945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132945.
Alexander, E. A., and A. P. Shashikala. 2022. “Studies on the microstructure and durability characteristics of ambient cured FA-GGBS based geopolymer mortar.” Constr. Build. Mater 347 (Sep): 128538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128538.
ASTM. 2012a. Standard test methods for abrasion resistance of horizontal concrete surfaces. ASTM C779/C779M-12. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2012b. Standard test methods for chemical resistance of mortars, grouts, and monolithic surfacing and polymer concretes. ASTM C267-01. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2015. Standard test methods for determining the chemical resistance of concrete products to acid attack. ASTM C1898. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bakharev, T. 2005. “Resistance of geopolymer materials to acid attack.” Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (4): 658–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.06.005.
Bernal, S. A., J. L. Provis, B. Walkley, R. S. Nicolas, J. D. Gehman, and D. G. Brice. 2013. “Gel nanostructure in alkali-activated binders based on slag and fly ash, and effects of accelerated carbonation.” Cem. Concr. Res. 53 (Nov): 127–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.06.007.
Chen, K., D. Wu, L. Xia, Q. Cai, and Z. Zhang. 2021. “Geopolymer concrete durability subjected to aggressive environments—A review of influence factors and comparison with ordinary Portland cement.” Constr. Build. Mater. 279 (Apr): 122496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122496.
Costa, J. O., P. Borges, F. Dos Santos, A. C. S. Bezerra, J. Blom, and W. Van Den Bergh. 2021. “The effect of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) aggregates on the reaction, mechanical properties and microstructure of alkali-activated slag.” Civ. Eng. 2 (3): 794–810. https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng2030043.
Costa, J. O., P. H. R. Borges, F. A. Dos Santos, A. C. S. Bezerra, W. Van Den Bergh, and J. Blom. 2020. “Cementitious binders and reclaimed asphalt aggregates for sustainable pavement base layers: Potential, challenges and research needs.” Constr. Build. Mater. 265 (Dec): 120325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120325.
Das, D., and P. K. Rout. 2020. “Synthesis, characterization and properties of fly ash based geopolymer materials.” Mater. Eng. 30 (May): 3213–3231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-021-05647-x.
Davidovits, J. 1994. “Geopolymers: Inorganic polymeric new materials.” J. Mater. Educ. 16 (8): 91–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01912193.
Debbarma, S., G. D. R. N. Ransinchung, and S. Singh. 2019. “Feasibility of roller compacted concrete pavement containing different fractions of reclaimed asphalt pavement.” Constr. Build. Mater. 199 (Feb): 508–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.047.
Debbarma, S., G. D. R. N. Ransinchung, and S. Singh. 2020. “Improving the properties of RAP-RCCP mixes by incorporating supplementary cementitious mineral admixtures as part addition of Portland cement.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 32 (8): 04020229. https://doi.org/10.161/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003283.
EPA (Enviroment Protection Agency). 2009. National primary drinking water regulations. Washington, DC: EPA.
Ghosh, A., and G. D. R. N. Ransinchung. 2022. “Application of machine learning algorithm to assess the efficacy of varying industrial wastes and curing methods on strength development of geopolymer concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 341 (Jul): 127828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127828.
Girish, M. G., K. K. Shetty, and G. Nayak. 2022. “Synthesis of fly-ash and slag based geopolymer concrete for rigid pavement.” Mater. Today Proc. 60 (Jan): 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.11.332.
Guo, S., J. Hu, and Q. Dai. 2018. “A critical review on the performance of portland cement concrete with recycled organic components.” J. Cleaner Prod. 188 (Jul): 92–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.244.
Hager, I., M. Sitarz, and K. Mroz. 2021. “Fly-ash based geopolymer mortar for high-temperature application—Effect of slag addition.” J. Cleaner Prod. 316 (Sep): 128168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128168.
Hossiney, N., H. K. Sepuri, M. K. Mohan, A. Govindaraju, and J. Chyne. 2020. “Alkali-activated concrete paver blocks made with recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) aggregates.” Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 12 (Jun): 2214–5095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2019.e00322.
Hoy, M., S. Horpibulsuk, and A. Arulrajah. 2016. “Strength development of recycled asphalt pavement—Fly ash geopolymer as a road construction material.” Constr. Build. Mater. 117 (Aug): 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.136.
IRC (Indian Roads Congress). 2017. Guidelines for cement concrete mix design for pavements. IRC:44. New Delhi, India: IRC.
IS (Indian Standards). 1959a. Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete. IS:1199. New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standards). 1959b. Methods of tests for strength of concrete. IS:516. New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standards). 1999. Splitting tensile strength of concrete—Method of test. IS: 5816. New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standards). 2003. Testing of physical and chemical properties of fly ash. IS: 3812. New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standards). 2008. Sodium silicate for use in foundries. IS: 6773. New Delhi, India: BIS.
Kumar, N. S. M. R., and S. V. Rao. 2023. “A study on development of pavement quality geopolymer concrete for low volume roads.” Mater. Today: Proc. 2023 (Apr): 11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.684.
Lee, W. K. W., and J. S. J. Van Deventer. 2002. “Structural reorganisation of class F fly ash in alkaline silicate solutions.” Colloids Surf. 211 (1): 49–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-7757(02)00237-6.
Lee, W. K. W., and J. S. J. Van Deventer. 2004. “The interface between natural siliceous aggregates and geopolymers.” Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (2): 195–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(03)00250-3.
Li, Z. J., and S. F. Liu. 2007. “Influence of slag as additive on compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymer.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 19 (6): 470–474. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19:6(470).
Long, W. J., Z. Wu, K. H. Khayat, J. Wei, B. Dong, F. Xing, and J. Zhang. 2022. “Design, dynamic performance and ecological efficiency of fiber-reinforced mortars with different binder systems: Ordinary portland cement, limestone calcined clay cement and alkali-activated slag.” J. Cleaner Prod. 337 (Feb): 130478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130478.
Malhotra, V. M. 1999. “Making concrete ‘greener’ with fly ash.” Concr. Int. 21 (5): 61–66.
McLellan, B. C., R. P. Williams, J. Lay, A. V. Riessen, and G. D. Corder. 2011. “Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in comparison to ordinary portland cement.” J. Cleaner Prod. 19 (9–10): 1080–1090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.02.010.
Mehta, A., and R. Siddique. 2017. “Sulfuric acid resistance of fly ash based geopolymer concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 146 (Aug): 136–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.077.
Morsy, M. S., S. H. Alsayed, Y. Al-Salloum, and T. Almusallam. 2014. “Effect of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratios on strength and microstructure of fly ash geopolymer binder.” Arabian J. Sci. Eng. 39 (Jun): 4333–4339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-014-1093-8.
MoRTH (Ministry of Road Transport and Highways). 2013. Specifications for road and bridge works (Fifth Revision). New Delhi, India: MoRTH.
Nagajothi, S., and S. Elavenil. 2021. “Effect of GGBS addition on reactivity and microstructure properties of ambient cured fly ash based geopolymer concrete.” Silicon 13 (Aug): 507–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-020-00470-w.
Nandi, S., and G. D. R. N. Ransinchung. 2021. “Performance evaluation and sustainability assessment of precast concrete paver blocks containing coarse and fine RAP fractions: A comprehensive comparative study.” Constr. Build. Mater. 300 (Sep): 124042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124042.
Nandi, S., and G. D. R. N. Ransinchung. 2023. “Performance characteristics of concrete paver blocks incorporating individual and combined fractions of reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregates under different curing regimes.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 35 (4): 04023017. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004680.
Pasupathy, K., J. Sanjayan, and P. Rajeev. 2021. “Evaluation of alkalinity changes and carbonation of geopolymer concrete exposed to wetting and drying.” J. Build. Eng. 35 (Mar): 102029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.102029.
Provis, J., and J. Deventer. 2014. Alkali activated materials: State-of-the-art report. Berlin: Springer.
Rahman, S. S., and M. J. Khattak. 2022. “Feasibility of reclaimed asphalt pavement geopolymer concrete as a pavement construction material.” Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol. 16 (4): 888–907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42947-022-00169-8.
RILEM. 1988. “Measurement of hardened concrete carbonation depth recommendations CPC-18.” Mater. Struct. 21 (126): 453–455.
Saride, S., D. Avirneni, and S. Challapalli. 2016. “Micro-mechanical interaction of activated fly ash mortar and reclaimed asphalt pavement materials.” Constr. Build. Mater. 123 (Oct): 424–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.016.
Shi, X., A. Mukhopadhyay, D. Zollinger, and K. Huang. 2021. “Performance evaluation of jointed plain concrete pavement made with portland cement concrete containing reclaimed asphalt pavement.” Road Mater. Pavement Des. 22 (1): 59–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2019.1616604.
Soltanabadi, R., and K. Behfarnia. 2022. “Shear strength of reinforced concrete deep beams containing recycled concrete aggregate and recycled asphalt pavement.” Constr. Build. Mater. 314 (Jan): 125597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125597.
Song, K. I., J. K. Song, B. Y. Lee, and K. H. Yang. 2014. “Carbonation characteristics of alkali-activated blast-furnace slag mortar.” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 24 (3): 315–322. https://doi.org/10.4334/JKCI.2012.24.3.315.
Su, Y. M., N. Hossiney, M. Tia, and M. Bergin. 2014. “Mechanical properties assessment of concrete containing reclaimed asphalt pavement using the superpave indirect tensile strength test.” J. Test. Eval. 42 (4): 20130093. https://doi.org/10.1520/jte20130093.
Teh, S. H., W. Wiedmann, A. Castel, and J. D. Burgh. 2017. “Hybrid life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from cement, concrete and geopolymer concrete in Australia.” J. Cleaner Prod. 152 (May): 312–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.122.
Tian, L., D. He, J. Zhao, and H. Wang. 2021. “Durability of geopolymers and geopolymer concretes: A review.” Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 60 (1): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2021-0002.
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 1992. Toxicity characteristics leaching procedure. Washington, DC: USEPA.
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 1994. Technical assistance document for complying with the TC rule and implementing the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP). EPA-902-B-94-001. Washington, DC: USEPA.
Wongkvanklom, A., P. Posi, A. Kampala, T. Kaewngao, and P. Chindaprasirt. 2021. “Beneficial utilization of recycled asphaltic concrete aggregate in high calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete.” Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 15 (1): 2214–5095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00615.
Xu, H., and J. S. J. Van Deventer. 2000. “The geopolymerisation of alumino-silicate minerals.” Int. J. Miner. Process. 59 (3): 247–266.
Yang, Z., R. Mocadlo, M. Zhao, R. D. Sisson, M. Tao, and J. Liang. 2019. “Preparation of a geopolymer from red mud slurry and class F fly ash and its behavior at elevated temperatures.” Constr. Build. Mater. 221 (Oct): 308–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.034.
Yazdi, M., M. Liebscher, S. Hempel, J. Yang, and V. Mechtcherine. 2018. “Correlation of microstructural and mechanical properties of geopolymers produced from fly ash and slag at room temperature.” Constr. Build. Mater. 191 (11): 330–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.037.
Zheng, L., W. Wang, and Y. Yunchun Shi. 2010. “The effects of alkaline dosage and Si/Al ratio on the immobilization of heavy metals in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash-based geopolymer.” Chemosphere 79 (6): 665–671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.02.018.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 36 • Issue 10 • October 2024
Copyright
© 2024 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Aug 25, 2023
Accepted: Feb 27, 2024
Published online: Jul 24, 2024
Published in print: Oct 1, 2024
Discussion open until: Dec 24, 2024
ASCE Technical Topics:
- Aggregates
- Asphalt concrete
- Asphalt pavements
- Business management
- Composite materials
- Concrete pavements
- Curing
- Engineering materials (by type)
- Environmental engineering
- Fiber reinforced composites
- Infrastructure
- Materials engineering
- Materials processing
- Pavements
- Practice and Profession
- Recycling
- Sustainable development
- Transportation engineering
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.