1D advection–dispersion–reaction equation (ADRE)13–14ACAP. See Alternative Cover Assessment ProgramAC/DC converter321–322Acid/base reactions18Acid digestion methods64–66Acid rock drainage (ARD)289, 292–293Action leakage rate (ALR)95–97Advection process3–5Aerial photography32Air rotary casing hammer (ARCH) drilling37ALR. See action leakage rateAlternative Cover Assessment Program (ACAP)189Alternative land disposal restrictions for contaminated soils101–102Ammonia as nitrogen79Analytical methods for common metals and metalloids in water72–77Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate Requirements (ARARs)108ARARs. See Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate RequirementsARD. See acid rock drainageASTM D698190ASTM D503039ASTM D5198-1765ASTM D5321167, 242ASTM D5504-1281ASTM D5607242ASTM D5885/D5885M165ASTM D6243242ASTM D6243/D6243M167ASTM D6349-1365ASTM D6357-1165ASTM D7238165ASTM D8117165ASTM E1621-1366ASTM E2941-1465As[V]153Atomic absorption (AA) spectrometry69–70Atomic absorption flame (AAFL) spectrometry70Atomic absorption graphite furnace (AAGF) spectrometry70Average ratenonreactive solutes transportation3–4travel time5Barrier walls355. See also horizontal barrier walls. See also vertical barrier wallsBDAT. See best-demonstrated available technologyBecker penetration test (BPT)44Best-demonstrated available technology (BDAT)100Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)80Biogas generation120Biological transformations19Biomass fly ash146–147chemical composition and classification of149–150in concrete151as mine backfill152organic content150–151particle morphology148–149particle size148–149for soil improvement152as sorptive agents153specific gravity of149for waste solidification/stabilization152–153Bishop's method, modified228–229BOD. See biochemical oxygen demandBoiler slags129, 131Borehole electrical and nuclear testing42–43Borehole hydraulic conductivity testing39–41Borehole pressuremeter testing43–44Borehole sampling and testing35–49BPT44complications inherent to36–37electrical and nuclear testing42–43general35–36health and safety considerations37hydraulic conductivity testing39–41IDW37–38internal deformation measurements45–46internal moisture content and temperature measurements46–49pit sampling38pit unit weight testing38–39pressuremeter testing43–44in situ direct shear tests44–45SPT44types of36wave propagation velocity testing41–42Borehole wave propagation velocity testing41–42Bottom ash129Boutwell permeameter. See two-stage borehole permeameter (TSB)BPT. See becker penetration testBulk chemical analysis of solids64–66CAHs. See chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbonsCalcium carbonate (CaCO3)346CCL. See compacted clay linerCCRs. See coal combustion residualsC&DD. See construction and demolition debrisCement–bentonite (CB) slurry trench cutoff walls361–362CERCLA. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability ActChemical incompatibility4Chemical oxygen demand (COD)80Chloride78–79Chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons (CAHs)374degradation pathways378–379degradation rates379–380groundwater chemistry380–381temperature381–382treatment of378–382ZVI-mediated380Chlorine79Chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE)163–164Chromium382Clean Water Act (CWA)64CMCs. See controlled modulus columnsCoal combustion residuals (CCRs)129–139, 241beneficial use of135–139encapsulated136unencapsulated136–139chemical composition131compaction134–135environmental concerns139environmental regulation for129–130fly ashes, classification of131–133loss on ignition134overview129particle size distribution133shear strength of135size and shape130–131specific gravity of133–134COD. See chemical oxygen demandColumns of improved material344–345Compacted clay liner (CCL)161–163, 167–171construction issues170–171hydraulic performance169mechanical performance170overview167–169single resistive/barrier layers196–197specifications170–171Compaction grouting345–346Complexation reactions18Composite covers resistive/barrier layers199–200Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)88basics103–104removal and remedial actions104–108requirements108–109COMSOL14Concave isotherms16Cone penetration tests (CPTs)49–51, 346Construction and demolition debris (C&DD)241Construction quality assurance (CQA) program160Construction quality control (CQC)164Continuous surface wave system (CSWS)342–343Controlled modulus columns (CMCs)344–345Convex isotherms16Coupled flow processes, mass transport11–12CPTs. See cone penetration testsCritical slip surface228CSPE. See chlorosulfonated polyethyleneCSWS. See continuous surface wave systemCyanide79Dam/embankment296–299Darcian velocity4Darcy's law4DDC. See deep dynamic compactionDeep dynamic compaction (DDC)343–344DEMs. See discrete element methodsDense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs)15Depth of improvement (D)343Differential thermal analysis (DTA)67–68Diffusion coefficient6–7Diffusive transport5–7Digestion methods64–65Dilatometer Marchetti test (DMT)51Direct ZVI injection methods400–401Discrete element methods (DEMs)231Dispersion (mechanical), mass transport7–8Dissolution/precipitation process15–17Dissolved oxygen (DO)69DMT. See dilatometer Marchetti testDNAPLs. See dense nonaqueous phase liquidsDO. See dissolved oxygenDouble-liner system for hazardous waste93–95Drainage systems175–176hydraulic performance175–176overview175Drop energy343Dry-bulk density13Dry density of soil13DTA. See differential thermal analysisEffective ionic mobility320Effective porosity5EGCs. See exposed geomembrane coversEICP. See enzyme-induced calcite precipitationEK. See electrokinetic (EK) remediationEK-SALT320EK-TAP320Electrical resistance tomography (ERT)31Electrical resistivity and conductivity surveys31–32Electrokinetic (EK) remediation317–330application in field321–323DC in319–320electrode installation in field322electrolysis in320–321electroosmosis in320electrophoresis in320examples of326–329ex situ physical techniques317future prospect329–330governing factorscontamination level325–326electric voltage and current323–324electrode placement324soil type324–325total costs for326; schematic of322in situ chemical treatment techniques317in situ physical removal of volatile organic compounds317works/process319–321Electrolysis320–321Electromagnetic measurements (EM)31Electroosmosis320Electrophoresis320Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)87–89Enzyme-induced calcite precipitation (EICP)346EPA. See Environmental Protection AgencyEPA 2E81EPA 3C81EPA 1881EPA 25C81EPA 166878EPA 3050B65EPA 3051A65EPA 305265EPA 8082A78EPA 8270D78EPA SW-84678EPDM. See ethylene propylene diene terpolymerERT. See electrical resistance tomographyEthylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM)164Evapotranspiration (ET) covers. See water balance coversExcavation and replacement305–315advantages of305–306construction vibrations and310–313groundwater control313open water excavation (dredging)314–315overview305protection of adjacent structures310–313sheet pile installation309–310subsurface investigation and design313support306–309Excavation shoring306Exposed geomembrane covers (EGCs)191Exposed geomembrane covers resistive/barrier layers201–202Factor of safety (FS)225–227Fate15–19acid/base reactions18biological transformations19complexation reactions18dissolution/precipitation17hydrolysis/substitution reactions18–19radioactive decay17–18redox/oxidation/reduction reactions19sorption15–17Favorable isotherms. See concave isothermsFEA. See finite-element analysisFederal Code of Regulations87Federal Register (FR)129FGD. See flue gas desulfurizationFick's first law5–6Field capacity121Final covers on landfills and waste piles183–214control of fluid pressures below barrier layers204–205definition of184erosion control of202–203fluid barriers184–185functions of183landfill cover thermal regime208–209landfill gas control in209–211liquid pressures above barrier layer205overview183–184physical isolation of waste184postclosure maintenance211–214buildings, roads, and security214cover soil cracking212–213cover soil perforations212–213cover soil slumping212–213deed restrictions214documentation211–212electrical/mechanical systems213–214end use214environmental monitoring214inspections212intrusion by humans/animals213permits214settlement213stormwater control213vandalism by humans/animals213vegetation212regulatory requirements of185–186resistive/barrier layers196–202composite covers199–200exposed geomembrane covers201–202single CCLs196–197single GCLs197–198single-geomembrane198–199resistive covers186, 191–196example of191–192foundation layer in192gas collection layer in192–196layers in192–196settlement impact on performance of207–208slope stability considerations for veneer cover systems205–207soil covers186–187surface water management of202–203types of186–196water balance covers186, 187–191configuration189vs. double-capillary barrier190long-term effectiveness191vs. monolithic covers189numerical models of188–189principle of188Finite-element analysis (FEA)230–231F-listed wastes89Flue gas desulfurization (FGD)129, 131Fluoride79Fly ashes129, 131beneficial use of135–139encapsulated136unencapsulated136–139classification of131–133compaction134–135environmental concerns139shear strength of135specific gravity of133–134Foundation layer in resistive covers192FR. See Federal RegisterFreundlich sorption isotherm equation16–17FS. See factor of safetyFundão failure299Gas analysis80–83questionnaire for81–83Gas collection layer in resistive covers192–196drainage layer194–195hydraulic barrier layer193–194protection layer195surface layer196GCL. See geosynthetic clay linersGeomembrane liners163–167hydraulic performance165–166mechanical performance166–167overview163–165Geomembranes164Geophones28–30, 41Geosynthetic-based drainage systems163Geosynthetic clay liners (GCL)161–163, 171–172construction issues172mechanical performance172overview171–172single resistive/barrier layers197–198specifications172Geotechnical engineers223GHGs. See greenhouse gasesGreenhouse gases (GHGs)93GRI GM13 (GRI 2021)165Ground improvement for geoenvironmental engineering practice339–348columns of improved material for344–345deep dynamic compaction for343–344goal of339grouting for345–346preloading in340–342roller compaction for342–343in situ stabilization/solidification for347–348soil mixing for346–347Groundwater contamination317Groundwater pump-and-treat317Grouted barrier walls366–367Grouting for ground improvement345–346Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) of 198487Hazardous chemicals91Hazardous constituents91Hazardous substance91Hazardous waste87–112, 160, 241–242action leakage rate95–97alternative land disposal restrictions for contaminated soils101–102basic requirements and treatment standards for100–101CERCLAbasics103–104removal and remedial actions104–108requirements108–109characteristics90–91corrosivity90ignitability90reactivity90–91toxicity91closure and postclosure care97–100constituents/chemicals/substances91–92definition88–89, 91double-liner system for93–95generation92identification process88landfill, configuration for161landfill final cover system based on EPA99listed89–90F-list (40 CFR §261.31)89K-list (40 CFR §261.32)89–90P-list (40 CFR §261.33)90U-list (40 CFR §261.33)90mixed wastes, special requirements for111–112polychlorinated biphenyl wastes110–111recycling92–93redevelopment of remediated comprehensive environmental response compensation and liability act sites109response action plan95–97transportation92TSDFs87, 92–93, 102HDPE. See high-density polyethyleneHELP model. See Hydraulic Evaluation of Landfill PerformanceHigh-density polyethylene (HDPE)163–164Horizontal barrier walls355Hybrid field measurement techniques, MSW49–53cone penetration test soundings49–51DMT51general49SDMT51in situ measurement of shear modulus reduction51–53Hydraulic conductivity121–122Hydraulic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) model166Hydrodynamic dispersion9–10Hydrodynamic dispersion coefficient9Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) model189Hydrolysis/substitution reactions18–19HYDRUS14ICP. See inductive coupled plasmaICP-MS. See inductively coupled plasmamass spectrometryIDW. See investigation-derived wasteImpounded tailings296–299Inductive coupled plasma (ICP)69–70Inductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry (ICP-MS)70Infinite slope stability analysis226–227InSAR, interpretation of32In situ chemical oxidation (ISCO)317, 320–321In situ chemical reduction (ISCR)317, 320–321In situ direct shear tests44–45In situ measurement of shear modulus reduction51–53In situ testing of MSW27Interface shear strength238–243Interface shear strength parameters206, 242–244Internal deformation measurements45–46Internal moisture content and temperature measurements46–49Intrusive field measurement techniques35–49borehole and test pit sampling38borehole and test pit unit weight testing38–39borehole electrical and nuclear testing42–43borehole hydraulic conductivity testing39–41borehole pressuremeter testing43–44borehole sampling and testing36–49borehole wave propagation velocity testing41–42BPT44complications inherent to36–37general35–36health and safety considerations37IDW37–38internal deformation measurements45–46internal moisture content and temperature measurements46–49in situ direct shear tests44–45SPT44types of36Investigation-derived waste (IDW), disposition of37–38Ionic migration319–320Ionic mobility320ISCO. See in situ chemical oxidationISCR. See in situ chemical reductionJet grouting346, 366–367Kjeldahl nitrogen79K-listed wastes89–90Langmuir sorption isotherm equation16–17LCRS. See leachate collection and removal systemLDS. See leak detection systemLeachate collection and removal system (LCRS)94–95Leak detection system (LDS)96, 163Life of waste containment system225Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) imaging32Light nonaqueous phase liquids (LNAPLs)15Limit analysis230Limit equilibrium analyses225–230Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)163Liner systems for containment facilities159–176CCL167–171construction issues170–171hydraulic performance169mechanical performance170overview167–169specifications170–171drainage systems175–176hydraulic performance175–176overview175GCL171–172construction issues172mechanical performance172overview171–172specifications172geomembrane liners163–167hydraulic performance165–166mechanical performance166–167overview163–165for hazardous solid waste landfills161–162hydraulic performance of173–174for nonhazardous solid waste landfills161–162overview159–160regulatory requirements for160–163background160–161hazardous solid waste landfills161–162nonhazardous solid waste landfills161–162prescriptive designs161–163temperature and desiccation effects174Liquid analysis methods67–80general parameters for68–69color68dissolved oxygen69electrical conductance69hardness69pH68–69redox potential69temperature68turbidity68metals and metalloids, analysis of69–71organics, analysis of71–78other compounds and parameters, analysis of78–80LLDPE. See linear low-density polyethyleneLNAPLs. See light nonaqueous phase liquidsLoad transfer platform (LTP)344–345Loam189LOI. See loss on ignitionLoss on ignition (LOI)134LTP. See load transfer platformMAM. See microtremor analysis methodMass transport3–15advection3–5coupled flow processes in11–12diffusion5–7mechanical dispersion in7–8nonaqueous phase liquids (NAPLs)15total mass flux in8–11transient (time-dependent) advective–dispersive–reactive transport in12–14unsaturated porous media14MASW. See multichannel analysis of surface wavesMechanical dispersion in mass transport7–8Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE)248Methane oxidation211Methanotrophs211MICP. See microbially induced calcite precipitationMicrobially induced calcite precipitation (MICP)346Microscale ZVI (mZVI)376Microtremor analysis method (MAM)28Mineralogical analysis of solids66–68Mine tailings290–292, 293–299Mine waste geotechnics289–299management296–299tailing storage facilities296–299waste rock piles296mine tailings293–295overview289–290waste rock292–293Mine waste rock290–293, 296Mixed wastes111–112Mix-in-place methods (continuous trench mixing)364–365Mix-in-place methods (panel mixing)362–364Mohr–Coulomb shear strength envelope238–241Mohr–Coulomb strength intercept227Mohr–Coulomb strength slope angle227Moisture content120–121Mount Polley and Cadia failures299MSE. See mechanically stabilized earthMSW. See municipal solid wasteMT3D14Multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW)29Municipal solid waste (MSW)27–28, 117–125, 160, 241biogas generation120composition119compressibility124–125definition of117dynamic properties of125excavation in34failure in35field capacity121generation intensity and comparison with US GDP118hybrid field measurement techniques49–53cone penetration test soundings49–51DMT51general49SDMT51in situ measurement of shear modulus reduction51–53hydraulic conductivity121–122intrusive field measurement techniques35–49borehole and test pit sampling38borehole and test pit unit weight testing38–39borehole electrical and nuclear testing42–43borehole hydraulic conductivity testing39–41borehole pressuremeter testing43–44borehole sampling and testing36–49borehole wave propagation velocity testing41–42BPT44complications inherent to36–37general35–36health and safety considerations37IDW37–38internal deformation measurements45–46internal moisture content and temperature measurements46–49in situ direct shear tests44–45SPT44types of36moisture content of120–121nonintrusive field measurement techniques28–35electrical resistivity and conductivity surveys31–32general28shear strength estimation based on stability observations33–35strong ground motion measurements33surface deformation measurements32wave propagation velocity measurements28–31at Novy Svet35recommendations53–56settlement124–125shear strength of122–124in situ testing of27structure119in the United States117–118unit weight of120Nanoscale ZVI376–377NAPLs. See nonaqueous phase liquidsNewmark-type displacement analysis275–279chart-based approach to275–277site-specific277–279Newmark-type seismic displacement analysis275–277Nitrates79Nitrites79Nonaqueous phase liquids (NAPLs)15Nonhazardous waste160Nonintrusive field measurement techniques28–35electrical resistivity and conductivity surveys31–32general28shear strength estimation based on stability observations33–35strong ground motion measurements33surface deformation measurements32wave propagation velocity measurements28–31Nonreactive chemical tracer10OII landfill30, 39Other industrial waste241–242Oxidation211PAHs. See polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsPb[II]153PBSD. See performance-based seismic designPCBs. See polychlorinated biphenylsPeak ground acceleration (PGA)260Performance-based seismic design (PBSD)280–281Permeable reactive barrier (PRB)373definition373material373–374schematic of373zero-valent iron374–404PFAS. See poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substancesPGA. See peak ground accelerationPhosphorus79–80P-listed wastes90Poisson's ratio30Poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)71, 78Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)71, 78Polychlorinated biphenyl wastes110–111Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)71, 78Polymeric materials163Polypropylene (PP)163Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)163Pore pressure243–246Porosity5Porous mediamacroscopic dispersion in8microscopic dispersion in7unsaturated14PP. See polypropylenePRB. See permeable reactive barrierPreloading in ground improvement340–342Probabilistic analyses232–233Pseudo-static limit equilibrium270–275PVC. See polyvinyl chlorideQuestionnaire for gas analysis81–83Radioactive decay17–18Radioactive waste241–242Rammed aggregate piers (RAPs)344–345Random field modeling232RAP. See response action planRAPs. See rammed aggregate piersrecycled asphalt pavementRCAs. See recycled concrete aggregatesRCRA. See Resource Conservation and Recovery ActReclaimed pavement materials (RPMs)135Recycled asphalt pavement (RAPs)135Recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs)135Redox/oxidation/reduction reactions19Refraction microtremor (ReMi)28ReMi. See refraction microtremorRepresentative elementary volume (REV)12–13Resistive/barrier layers, final covers196–202composite covers199–200exposed geomembrane covers201–202single CCLs196–197single GCLs197–198single-geomembrane198–199Resistive coversfoundation layer in192gas collection layer in192–196Resistivity piezocone (RCPTu)31Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)87–89, 91–94, 97, 129–130, 160CERCLA and102–110HSWA100–101land disposal restrictions100–102LDR program100–101remediation of contamination at102requirements for hazardous waste landfills93–100in Subtitles C and D161TSDFs93Response action plan (RAP)95–97REV. See representative elementary volumeRichard's equation189Rigid inclusion columns345Roles, static slope stability of containment systems223–224Roller compaction for ground improvement342–343RPMs. See reclaimed pavement materialsRT3D14Sand cone density test38Sandia National Laboratories188SASW. See spectral analysis of surface wavesSatellite imagery32Scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray (SEM/EDX)67–68SDMT. See seismic dilatometer Marchetti testSeismic coefficient260Seismic dilatometer Marchetti test (SDMT)51Seismic performance standard261–263Seismic refraction tests (SRT)28, 30–31Seismic stability of waste containment systems259–281design criteria263–266design ground motion266–270hierarchy of seismic stability analyses259–261Newmark-type displacement analysis275–279chart-based approach to275–277site-specific277–279overview259pseudo-static limit equilibrium270–275seismic performance standard261–263stress–deformation dynamic analyses279–281Sensitivity study237Se[VI]153Shear stiffness30Shear strength estimation33–35Single CCLs resistive/barrier layers196–197Single compacted clay liners196–197Single GCLs resistive/barrier layers197–198Single-geomembrane resistive/barrier layers198–199Situ stabilization/solidification for ground improvement347–348Slag–CB slurry wall366SLAMMER, freeware program277Slices slope stability analysis228–229Slickensides240Soil–bentonite (SB) slurry trench cutoff walls357–360Soil-cement mixture345Soil covers186–187Soil excavation-and-disposal/treatment317Soil mixing for ground improvement346–347Soil pH321Soil reinforcement248–250Soil shear strength238–243Soil vapor extraction317Soil washing317Solid analysis methodsbulk chemical analysis64–66mineralogical analysis66–67Solid-phase concentration of contaminant13Solute concentration5Sorption process15–17Sorptive agents153Spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW)28–29SPT. See standard penetration testSRT. See seismic refraction testsStable landfill waste slopes, back-analysis of35Standard penetration test (SPT)44Static slope stability of containment systems221–254documentation of254forensic evaluations246–248input parameters236–246pore pressure243–246slope geometry237–238soil shear strength/interface shear strength238–243limitations223methods of analysis225–233DEMs231FEA230–231limit230limit equilibrium225–230probabilistic analyses232–233three-dimensional analyses231–232modes of failure in233–236overview221–222review guidelines250–254roles223–224soil reinforcement248–250typical applications222–223workflow224–225Stress–deformation dynamic analyses279–281Strong ground motion measurements33Sulfate80Sulfide80Surface deformation measurements32Surface wave testing30SW-846 5000 series71SW-846 manual64Tailing storage facilities (TSFs)289, 296–299TCLP. See Toxicity Characteristic Leaching ProcedureTDS. See total dissolved solidsTGA. See thermogravimetric analysisThermogravimetric analysis (TGA)67–68Three-dimensional analyses231–232TOC. See total organic carbonTOD. See total oxygen demandTortuosity factor6Total dissolved solids (TDS)69Total mass flux in mass transport8–11Total mass of contaminant per unit total volume13Total organic carbon (TOC)71Total oxygen demand (TOD)80Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH)71, 77Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)91Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) of 1976110TPH. See total petroleum hydrocarbonsTransient (time-dependent) advective–dispersive–reactive transport of solute12–13TRD. See trench remixing and deep wallTreatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDFs)87Trench remixing and deep wall (TRD)364–365TSB. See two-stage borehole permeameterTSDFs. See treatment, storage, and disposal facilitiesTSFs. See tailing storage facilitiesTwo-stage borehole permeameter (TSB)41UAV. See unmanned aerial vehicleU-listed wastes90Ultraviolet (UV) radiation164–165Unfavorable isotherms. See convex isothermsUnified Soil Classification Systems (USCS)133Universal treatment standards (UTS)101Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)32Unsaturated porous media14Unstable landfill waste slopes, back-analysis of34–35USCS. See Unified Soil Classification SystemsUS Department of Transportation (USDOT)92USDOT. See US Department of TransportationUS Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)129USEPA. See US Environmental Protection AgencyUTS. See universal treatment standardsVeneer194Vertical barrier walls355–369deployment options355–357longevity considerations367–369other methods366–367types357–367cement–bentonite (CB) slurry trench cutoff walls361–362grouted barrier walls366–367mix-in-place methods (continuous trench mixing)364–365mix-in-place methods (panel mixing)362–364soil–bentonite (SB) slurry trench cutoff walls357–360Very low-density polyethylene (VLDPE)163Vibrating beam thin cutoff wall366VLDPE. See very low-density polyethyleneVOCs. See volatile organic compoundsVolatile organic compounds (VOCs)71, 77–78, 80–81Volumetric moisture content121Waste rock piles296Water balance covers186, 187–191configuration189vs. double-capillary barrier190long-term effectiveness191vs. monolithic covers189numerical models of188–189principle of188Water flux4Wave propagation velocity measurements28–31Wet gravimetric moisture content121Woodward Clyde Consultants30Woody biomass fly ash145–153biomass ash146–147chemical composition and classification of149–150in concrete151as mine backfill152organic content150–151particle morphology148–149particle size148–149for soil improvement152as sorptive agents153specific gravity of149for waste solidification/stabilization152–153Workflow, slope stability analysis224–225X-ray diffraction (XRD)67–68X-ray fluorescence (XRF)66XRD. See X-ray diffractionXRF. See X-ray fluorescenceZero-valent iron (ZVI) PRB374–404applicability374–384chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons, treatment of378–382degradation pathways378–379degradation rates379–380groundwater chemistry380–381temperature381–382ZVI-mediated380commercial376construction methods398–401direct ZVI injection methods400–401trench-and-backfill399–400contaminants treated377design of384–398dissolved metals, treatment of382–384feasibility evaluation374–376materials376–377microscale376monitoring401–403groundwater sample collection and analysis plan402–403well network401–402nanoscale376–377
