Note: Page numbers followed by f and t indicate figures and tables.
absorbed glass mat (AGM)74
acronyms and abbreviations225–229
activated sludge process115
advanced wastewater treatment techniques194
Aermotor:pumping installation169
fwindmill168
f.
See also wind energy
Affordable Clean Energy (ACE)4
Agricultural Act of 20143.
See also US renewable energy policy
AgSTAR program99
alkaline fuel cells (AFCs)115, 125–126, 125
f.
See also fuel cells
alternating current (AC)61, 184
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA)109
anaerobic digesters (ADs)94
complete-mix99
fconfigurations97
fdesigns for farm-operated100
fin US Farms from 2000 to 2018100
fanaerobic digestion (AD)114
advantages115
biogas from 2000 to 2018101
fcovered anaerobic lagoon98
flivestock and poultry manure96–100, 105–107
plug-flow anaerobic digestor98
f.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems
anaerobic digestion system (ADS)106
Appalachian Electric Power (AEP)76
applicant29
artificial intelligence (AI)179
best management practices (BMPs)49
billion gallons (Bgal. or BG)113
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)207
biodiesel53
classes of55
diesel engine53
Pacific Biodiesel54
processing54–55, 54
fproduction from feedstocks56
ftransesterification reaction53, 55
fUS biodiesel production55–57, 56
f.
See also ethanol
biofuels7–8, 39
advanced45, 57.
See also biodiesel.
See also ethanol.
See also renewable energy resources
biogas114
in circular economy107–110
-distributed energy systems110
generation systems94–96
methane makeup in biogas system93
on-farm production96
production pathways107
-to-electric generation102–105.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems.
See also fuel cells.
See also hydrogen
biogas-to-energy renewable systems93, 110
AgSTAR program99
anaerobic digestion configurations97
fcarbon intensity107
contaminates107
diluents107
feedstocks, biogas and energy generation, and end use106
flivestock and poultry manure96–100, 105–107
microturbine and reciprocating engine comparison104
tnatural gas102
renewable natural gas108
RNG supply chain for wastewater treatment plants108
fsludges/biosolids and biogas-to-energy101–102
Ten State Standards95
uses of biogas from 2000 to 2018101
f.
See also anaerobic digesters.
See also biogas
biohydrogen116
infrastructure131
production methods117
f.
See also hydrogen
Biomass Crop Assistance Program (BCAP)3
Biomass Energy and Alcohol Fuels Act2.
See also US renewable energy policy
biomethane.
See biogas
biophotolysis120–121, 120
f.
See also hydrogen
Bipartisan Budget Act of 20186.
See also US renewable energy policy
brine137
disposal144.
See also desalination technologies
building block scenarios (BBS)48
built environment wind turbine (BEWT)166
buoy station205
Bureau of Land Management (BLM)31–33
Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM)33–34
regulatory roadmap34
fbusiness as usual (BAU)47
capital expenditure (CapEx)20, 110
carbon intensity107.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems
cellulases44
cellulosic ethanol processing43–44, 44
f.
See also ethanol
Chasquimote201
chemical oxygen demand (COD)116
Class A rating204.
See also solar-powered monitoring networks
Clean Air Act (CAA)40
Clean Power Plan (CPP)3
of 20153–4.
See also US renewable energy policy
Clean Water Act (CWA)193, 199
Coanda effect hydro-shear screen68
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)31
combined heat and power systems (CHP systems)93, 103, 116
combined thermal and optical inactivation193
Common Channel Signaling System No. 7179
compound parabolic collector (CPC)193
compressed-air energy storage (CAES)159
concentrated photovoltaic (CPV)32, 184
concentrated solar power (CSP)32, 160, 184
and solar PV187
tCongressional Budget Office (CBO)46
Consolidated Appropriations Act of 20165.
See also US renewable energy policy
contaminants107.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems
controlled drainage (CD)52
copper–indium-gallium–selenide (CISG)8, 184
corn-growing states49
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)3
corporate average fuel economy standard (CAFES)40
cyanobacteria121
dark fermentation (DF)115, 117–118.
See also hydrogen
Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE)35
data buoys205
Decentralized Green Water-Infrastructure System (DGWIS)218
Department of Energy (DOE)8, 34
Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ)29
desalination processes135, 147, 189
comparison and potential applications139
t–140
tcriteria for selecting energy source141
fcriteria for selecting technology143
fenergy requirement comparison136
fmembrane technologies190
principles135
renewable energy integration with138, 141–142
selection process of142–143, 143
fsolar-powered190–191
technologies136–138
technology sustainability144–147
thermal technologies189.
See also solar energy and water/wastewater infrastructure
desalination technologies136
brine disposal and management alternate144, 145
fcriteria for selecting143
feconomics of renewable energy-driven146–147
energy efficiency of thermal desalination137
environmental impacts of desalination processes144
freshwater costs146
fmultieffect distillation136–137
multistage flash desalination136
regulatory requirements147
reverse osmosis137–138
social aspects of desalination147
surface discharge145–146
sustainability of144–147
vapor compression137
designated leasing areas (DLAs)31, 32
diesel engine53.
See also biodiesel
diluents107.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems
direct current (DC)61, 184, 216
dissolved oxygen (DO)7, 203
dry milling process43
f.
See also ethanol
Electric Consumers Protection Act of 19866
electrodialysis (ED)135, 190
Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 20086.
See also US renewable energy policy
energy efficiency resources standards (EERS)4.
See also US renewable energy policy
Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA)40, 57
of 20073
volume renewable standards set by41
t.
See also US renewable energy policy
energy-intensive alternative water sources214
Energy Policy Act (EPAct)2, 40
19922
20052–3.
See also US renewable energy policy
Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA)2
energy recovery turbine (ERT)176
enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR)117
enhanced geothermal system (EGS)157, 159.
See also geothermal energy
environmental impact statement (EIS)33
ethanol39
annual nitrate plus nitrite loads51
fannual total nitrogen loads51
fannual total phosphorus loads52
fcellulosic ethanol processing43–44, 44
fclasses of41–42
corn processing42
dry milling for corn ethanol43
fEnergy Policy Act40
full lifecycle corn ethanol GHG emissions for 201447
fglobal ethanol production 2007–201740
fgreenhouse gases46–48
legislation40–41
modern-day ethanol industry39
phosphorus sources49
pros and cons52
sources of phosphorus and nitrogen in MRB49, 50
fUS ethanol plant capacity45
fUS ethanol production and consumption 2000–201844–46, 45
fvolume renewable standards set by EISA41
twater quality impacts48–52
wet milling for corn ethanol42
f.
See also biodiesel
European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI)78
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)1, 17, 34–35
federal investment tax credit5.
See also US renewable energy policy
Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA)31
Federal Power Act (FPA)1
Federal Water Power Act (FWPA)1
fermentation technologies131
Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 20083.
See also US renewable energy policy
freshwater199
resources211
fuel cells (FCs)113, 121, 131
alkaline125–126, 125
fbiomodule, UF, and microbial116
fclassification121
components121
hydrogen124–125
hydrogen and hydrocarbon127
internal reforming128
10MGD WRRF115
fmicrobial130–131, 130
fmolten carbonate127–129, 128
fphosphoric acid126, 127
fpolymer electrolyte membrane124–125, 124
fsolid oxide129–130, 129
fin wastewater infrastructure122
t–123
t.
See also biogas.
See also hydrogen
gain output ratio (GOR)137
geothermal brine158
geothermal energy151
applications based on resource temperature153
fcurrent status156
direct heating applications158
dry steam154–155
energy storage159
enhanced geothermal systems159
flash155
future direction159
geothermal brine158
geothermal direct use157
geothermal power capacity and additions by country156
fgeothermal power generation154
geothermal power plant technology distribution155
fgeothermal resources152
hybridization opportunities160
hydrothermal reservoir152, 152
fmineral recovery158–159
operating capacity of geothermal power plants by system type157
forganic Rankine cycle/binary156
perspective160–161
power plant types154
subsurface temperatures across the United States151
ftechnological distribution157
technologies for geothermal power plants154
ftemperature ranges for different power block systems155
fuse157
weaknesses and strengths of CSP and160
fworldwide capacity156–157
Geothermal Energy Act2.
See also US renewable energy policy
geothermal power plant154
capacity and additions by countries156
fdry steam154–155
flash155
operating capacity of157
forganic Rankine cycle/binary156
technologies for154
ftechnology distribution155
ftemperature ranges for different power block systems155
fglobal warming potential (GWP)144
gram-positive bacteria117
greenhouse gases (GHGs)4, 17, 46–48, 93
groundwater (GW)188
Gulf's hypoxic zone48
GW under direct influence of surface water (GWUDISW)188
harmful algal blooms (HABs)205
hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)102
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)115
high-density polyethylene (HDPE)67
higher heat value (HHV)103, 104
high-lift VAWT (Hy-VAWT)166
horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs)165–167
source in the US165
fvs. VAWT165–167, 173
t.
See also wind energy
House bill5
HR 8444 1977–78.
See National Energy Act of 1978.
See also US renewable energy policy
HR 8444 1977–78.
See National Energy Act of 1978
hydraulic ram61, 62
fhydraulic retention time (HRT)94
hydrogen113, 116, 131
biohydrogen116
biohydrogen production methods116–117, 117
fbiophotolysis120–121, 120
fdark fermentation117–118
fuel cells124–125
and hydrocarbon fuel cells127
microbial electrolysis cells118, 118
fphotofermentation119–120, 119
fproduction from algal biomass119.
See also biogas.
See also fuel cells
hydropower6–7
electricity61
plant size and capacity62
t.
See also renewable energy resources
hydrothermal reservoir152, 152
f.
See also geothermal energy
impulse turbines69.
See also micro-hydropower
independent power producer (IPP)25
independent system operators (ISOs)18
internal reforming128.
See also fuel cells
International Electrotechnical Committee (IEC)174
Internet of Things (IoTs)179, 200, 211
investment tax credit (ITC)5
investor-owned utilities (IOUs)18
Iowa Department of Natural Resources (Iowa DNR)49
landfill gas (LFG)17
landowner30
land-use changes (LUC)46
large-scale wireless monitoring networks (LSWMNs)200, 201
Leading by Example (LBE)4
Local Government Outreach Stakeholder Group (LOG)29
low-emission practices48
material safety data sheets (MSDSs)8
mechanical vapor compression (MVC)135
megawatt (MW)31
capacity fee31
rate32
membrane distillation (MD)135, 190
membrane fuel cells (MCFCs)115.
See also fuel cells
methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)39
microalgae121
microbial electrolysis cells (MECs)116, 118, 118
f.
See also hydrogen
microbial fuel cells (MFCs)12, 17, 116, 116
f, 130–131, 130
f, 200, 206
-based sensor210–211
bulk tanks210
fchallenges with MFC-based sensor209
low-cost209–210
membrane-less paper electronic208
fpaper microbial fuel cell207
two-chamber microbial fuel cell207
f.
See also fuel cells.
See also water quality monitoring
micro-hydropower61, 80
basic concept of64
fbattery-based micro-hydropower system74
fbill of materials81
t–89
tcase study project at Glen Alton65
fcase study project cost75
case study site64–65
components of hydraulic ram62
fcost–benefit analysis75–76
cost summary75
tdecision matrix for turbine–generator interface71
tdesign components65
electrical component design71–75, 71
ffor electricity generation61
emerging technologies79–80
flow control weir at case study site67
fgeneration62–63
HL-100 air heater dump-load controller73
fhydraulic component design65–68
hydraulic head66
fhydropower in India77
impulse turbines69
lucid energy pipe system79
fLV1500 four-nozzle turbine70
fmagnet electric generator connected to Turgo turbine wheel72
fmechanical component design68–71
MorningStar Tri-45 battery overcharge controller75
foperation of Coanda effect screen unit69
toutback GTFX3048 inverter73
fpenstock63
projects in Nepal77–78
regulatory requirements76
selection matrix for penstock pipe material68
tsmall-scale hydropower system63
fsmall-stream78–79
surge protector73
fsystem design64, 66
tturbine flow control70
fturbine-generator system70
fTurgo impulse wheel69
universal UB4D 12 V, 200AH sealed AGM battery74
fas viable technology in developing countries76–78
micro turbines103
million megawatt hours (MWh)100
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA)49
Mississippi River Basin (MRB)48
annual nitrate plus nitrite load51
fannual total nitrogen load51
fannual total phosphorus load52
fsources of phosphorus and nitrogen49, 50
f.
See also ethanol
Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force (MTF)48
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS)6.
See also US renewable energy policy
molten carbonate fuel cells127–129, 128
f.
See also fuel cells
multieffect distillation (MED)136–137, 189.
See also desalination technologies
multistage flash desalination (MSF desalination)135, 136, 189.
See also desalination technologies
municipal solid waste (MSW)26, 28
Narragansett Bay Commission (NBC)103
National Academy of Engineering (NAE)163
National Energy Act (NEA)1
National Energy Act of 1978 (HR 8444 1977–78)2.
See also US renewable energy policy
National Energy Conservation Policy Act (NECPA)2
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)147, 201
natural gas102.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems
net capacity factor32
New Stationary Sources (NSPS)102
nongovernment organizations (NGOs)99
normal turbulence model (NTM)174
North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC)18
“Not In My Backyard (NIMBY)”147
ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)180
on-farm biogas production96.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems
operational expenditure (OpEx)20, 110
operation and maintenance (O&M)20, 75, 188
operator30
optical inactivation of bacteria192
optical irradiation192
outer continental shelf (OCS)33
owner30
Pacific Biodiesel54.
See also biodiesel
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL)34
packaged water treatment technologies219
paper microbial fuel cell (pMFC)207.
See also microbial fuel cells
penstock63.
See also micro-hydropower
performance ratio (PR)137
phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs or PFCs)115, 121, 126, 127
f.
See also fuel cells
photofermentation119–120, 119
f.
See also hydrogen
photosynthetic pigments (PS pigments)120
photovoltaic (PV)5, 17, 32, 138, 215
polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell124–125, 124
f.
See also fuel cells
polyvinyl chloride (PVC)67
power purchase agreement (PPA)25
Presque Isle Bay (PIB)205
production tax credit (PTC)5
project30
proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)124–125, 124
fpublic utility commission (PUC)25
Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA)2
public water system188
pump as turbine (PAT)80
rated capacity30
rate of return32
real-time control (RTC)201
reciprocating engines104
RE credits or certificates (RECs)20, 25
regional transmission operators (RTOs)18
Reid vapor pressure (RVP)41
reliable energy164
remote temperature sensor (RTS)74
renewable electricity generator25
Renewable Electricity Standard (RES)4
renewable energy (RE)17, 19
Energy Policy Act of 200520
Energy Policy requirements20
procurement of20
production and consumption of the United States18
fprograms33–34
project technologies19
resources17
standards20–25
systems17
types of18
US-code, law, and act19–20.
See also US renewable energy generation technology mix
renewable energy certificate (REC)20, 25
Renewable Energy Initiatives2.
See also US renewable energy policy
renewable energy in water infrastructure213, 214, 220–221
annual energy savings and CO2 emission reductions216
t, 217
tapplications in water industry215
applications of solar and wind energy218
centralized water infrastructure elements213
energy demand for water infrastructure214–215
estimated savings from renewable energy in wastewater treatment218
tReNEWW house220
solar energy215–217
solar energy in desalination plants218
twater and energy conservation215
water and energy nexus214–215
wind energy217–218
wind energy in desalination plants219
trenewable energy projects5, 28–31.
See also US renewable energy generation technology mix;
US renewable energy policyrenewable energy resources6
biofuels7–8
Electric Consumers Protection Act of 19866
hydropower6–7
solar photovoltaic8
wind energy8–9.
See also US renewable energy policy
renewable energy standards (RES)20
renewable energy technologies80, 205
renewable fuel organizations42
Renewable Fuel Standards (RFS)3, 39
renewable natural gas (RNG)108.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems
Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS)4, 20
eligibility27–28
and goals of United States21
t–24
trequired, annual renewable energy percentages27
tState of Connecticut25–27
sustainable biomass fuel26.
See also US renewable energy generation technology mix
renewable production tax credit5–6.
See also US renewable energy policy
renewables34–35.
See also US renewable energy generation technology mix
ReNEWW house220.
See also renewable energy in water infrastructure
request for qualifications (RFQs)110
RES Act of 20194.
See also US renewable energy policy
reverse osmosis (RO)135, 137–138, 175, 190.
See also desalination technologies
right-of-use and easement (RUE)33
right-of-way (ROW)31, 33
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)199
sediment microbial fuel cell (SMFC)209
Self-Powered Intelligent Networks (SPIN)179
Signaling System No. 7 (SS7)179
sludges/biosolids101–102.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems
solar:cells184
energy215–217
-powered desalination systems191
-powered humidification–dehumidification191
-powered wireless sensor networks211
radiation183–184
stills191
thermal185
water disinfection191–193
and wind energy rule31–33.
See also renewable energy in water infrastructure.
See also US renewable energy generation technology mix
Solar Energy and Energy Conservation2.
See also US renewable energy policy
solar energy and water/wastewater infrastructure183, 195
Clean Water Act193
concentrating solar power system186
fenergy usage in conventional activated sludge system194
fenergy usage in public surface water system188
fsolar in desalination189–190, 190–191
solar in wastewater processing194–195
solar in water industry187–189
solar PV and CSP187
tsolar radiation183–184
solar thermal185
solar water disinfection191–193
wastewater processing193–194.
See also solar photovoltaics
solar photovoltaics184, 185
f, 186
fand CSP186–187, 187
tmodules184
solar-powered monitoring networks201
buoy system206
fClass A rating204
discharge and nonpoint source monitoring202–204
solar wireless sensor array202
fstormwater sampling and monitoring201–202, 203
fSunapee Lake Project204
Susquehanna River Basin Project203
water quality monitoring with data buoys205–206
wireless solar network station204
f.
See also water quality monitoring
solar radiation, solar disinfection (SODIS)183, 187
solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)115, 129–130, 129
f.
See also fuel cells
solids retention time (SRT)94
Star Sailor SPIN•181
state implementation plans (SIPs)102
Sunapee Lake204.
See also solar-powered monitoring networks
surface discharge145–146.
See also desalination technologies
surface water (SW)188
sustainable biomass fuel26
Synthetic Fuels Corporation Act2.
See also US renewable energy policy
Ten State Standards95.
See also biogas-to-energy renewable systems
TETHYS34
thermal desalination energy efficiency137.
See also desalination technologies
thermal energy storage (TES)141
thermal inactivation192
thermal vapor compression (TVC)135
total dissolved solids (TDS)176
total nitrogen (TN)49, 202
total phosphorus (TP)48, 202
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI)8
transesterification reaction53, 55
f.
See also biodiesel
triple bottom line (TBL)110
turbine failure projectile zone (TFPZ)165, 167, 174
turbulence intensity (TI)174
turbulent kinetic energy (TKE)174
Turgo impulse wheel69.
See also micro-hydropower
uninterruptable power supplies (UPS)179
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)78
United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN-IPCC)10
US Department of Economic Development (US-DED)109
US ethanol production44–46.
See also ethanol
US renewable energy generation technology mix17, 35
energy standards and goals21
t–24
tlocal government on renewable energy projects28–31
renewable energy19–20
renewable energy standards20–25
renewable portfolio standards25–28
renewables34–35
RE programs33–34
Right-of-Way31
solar and wind energy rule31–33
VA developed model ordinances29
US renewable energy policy1, 11–12
Agricultural Act of 20143
Biomass Energy and Alcohol Fuels Act2
Bipartisan Budget Act of 20186
Clean Power Plan of 20153–4
Consolidated Appropriations Act of 20165
Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 20086
energy efficiency resources standards4
Energy Independence and Security Act of 20073
Energy Policy Act of 19922
Energy Policy Act of 20052–3
federal investment tax credit5
Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 20083
future of9–11
Geothermal Energy Act2
House bill5
modified accelerated cost recovery system6
National Energy Act of 1978 (HR 8444 1977–78)2
Renewable Energy Initiatives2
renewable energy projects5
renewable energy resources6–9
renewable production tax credit5–6
RES Act of 20194
Solar Energy and Energy Conservation2
Synthetic Fuels Corporation Act2
Total Energy Subsidies11
tutility-interactive electricity generation plant72
VA developed model ordinances29
valve regulated lead acid batteries (VRLA)74
vapor compression137.
See also desalination technologies
variable renewable energy (VRE)25
vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs)165
Darrieus wind turbine165
fand HAWT technology165–167, 173
thigh-lift166
f.
See also wind energy
virtual security (VSEC)179
volatile acids (VAs)94
volatile fatty acids (VFAs)117
volatile solids reduction (VSred)103
volt direct-current (VDC)71
waste activated sludge (WAS)103
wastewater processing193–194.
See also solar energy and water/wastewater infrastructure
wastewater processing or the resource recovery facilities (WRRFs)94
wastewater treatment techniques, advanced194
water and energy conservation215
water–energy nexus113, 114
f, 214–215.
See also fuel cells;
hydrogenrenewable energy in water infrastructurewater infrastructure181
centralized213
energy demand for214–215
resilience in163.
See also renewable energy in water infrastructure
water quality monitoring (WQM)199, 211
microbial fuel cells for206–211
next-generation compliance201
purposes199
in situ renewable energy sources200
solar-powered monitoring networks201–206
traditional approach200
water resource recovery facility (WRRF)113, 115
10MGD WRRF115
fwater treatment plants (WTPs)176
wet milling process42
f.
See also ethanol
wide area network (WAN)201
wind compression174
wind energy8–9, 163, 181, 217–218
Aermotor pumping installation169
fAermotor windmill168
fassessing wind power171–172
built environment wind turbine173–174
desalination and energy consumption176
tin desalination plants219
tefficiency and Betz limit170–171
emerging technologies179
energy and water175–178
HAWT and VAWT technology165–167, 165
f, 173
thigh-lift VAWT166
fproject30
quantifying turbulence174–175
turbine technology, applications, and siting172
VAWT Darrieus wind turbine165
fwind energy in water infrastructure178–179
wind powered mechanical systems167–170
wind turbine technologies165–167
wind turbine types165.
See also renewable energy in water infrastructure.
See also renewable energy resources
wind turbine30
technologies165–167
types165
wireless solar network (WSN)201
World Health Organization (WHO)183
