Technical Papers
May 24, 2022

Experimental Study of the Thixotropic Strength Recovery and Microstructural Evolution of Marine Clays

This article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLY
This article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLY
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148, Issue 8

Abstract

Thixotropy is a very important and unique property of soft clay in engineering, which has been drawing more and more attention in recent years. This study investigated the thixotropic strength recovery of representative marine clays in different sites of offshore China. The microstructure changes of clay during thixotropy were observed using scanning electron microscopy, and then related microscopic characteristics were analyzed. Probability entropy, Ep, is proposed as a new indicator based on the statistics of the alteration of diameter and orientation of particles or aggregates. The results show that thixotropy had significant effect on the strength increase for all the offshore Chinese clays that were tested, but their strength regain with time varied between the different sites. Some good correlations were developed between the thixotropy strength ratio and index parameters, particularly for water content, plasticity index, liquidity index, and sensitivity. The microstructural evolution of the clay tested during thixotropy was characterized by the change in both the diameter and the arrangement of particles or aggregates. The probability entropy was proved to quantitatively describe and analyze the microstructural evolution during thixotropy of clay, and its value increases with time. This new indicator could help to provide deeper insight into the thixotropic mechanism of clay.

Get full access to this article

View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.

Data Availability Statement

All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.

Acknowledgments

This work is supported by NGI research project “Thixotropy and set-up effect for marine clays,” the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51890912, 51879035, and 51909249), Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation (LQ19E090001), and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2021M700672). The first author acknowledges the financial support from the China Scholarship Council. The authors appreciate the review of the paper by NGI staff member David Moellenbeck.

References

Abdou, M. I., and H. E.-S. Ahmed. 2013. “A study on the thixotropy of Egyptian bentonite suspensions.” Pet. Sci. Technol. 31 (19): 1980–1991. https://doi.org/10.1080/10916466.2011.554060.
Alam, M. K., A. R. Shahriar, M. S. Islam, N. Islam, and M. Z. Abedin. 2021. “Experimental investigation on the strength and deformation aspects of thixotropic aging in reconstituted clays.” Geotech. Geol. Eng. 39 (3): 2471–2486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01639-1.
Al-Janabi, H. A., and C. P. Aubeny. 2019. “Experimental measurement of thixotropy and sensitivity in Gulf of Mexico clay.” In Proc., 29th Int. Ocean and Polar Engineering Conf. Mountain View, CA: International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers.
Andersen, K. H., and H. P. Jostad. 2002. “Shear strength along outside wall of suction anchors in clay after installation.” In Proc., 12th Int. Offshore and Polar Engineering Conf. Mountain View, CA: International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers.
Andersen, K. H., and H. P. Jostad. 2004. “Shear strength along inside of suction anchor skirt wall in clay.” In Proc., 12th Int. Offshore and Polar Engineering Conf. Kitakyushu, Japan: International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers.
Andersen, K. H., T. Lunne, T. J. Kvalstad, and C. F. Forsberg. 2008. “Deep water geotechnical engineering.” In Proc., 24th National Conf. of Mexican Social of Soil Mechanics, 1–57. London: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
ASTM. 2007. Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils. ASTM D422-63. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2012. Standard test method for one-dimensional consolidation properties of saturated cohesive soils using controlled-strain loading. ASTM D4186/D4186M-12. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2016. Standard test method for unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil. ASTM D2166. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2017a. Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (unified soil classification). ASTM D2487-17. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2017b. Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. ASTM D4318-17. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Boswell, P. G. H. 1948. “A preliminary examination of the thixotropy of some sedimentary rocks.” Q. J. Geol. Soc. 104 (Apr): 499–526.
Burgers, J. M., and G. W. S. Blair. 1949. Report on the principles of rheological nomenclature. Amsterdam, Netherlands: North-Holland Publishing.
Cabrera, J. G., and I. J. Smalley. 1973. “Quickclays as products of glacial action: A new approach to their nature, geology, distribution and geotechnical properties.” Eng. Geol. 7 (2): 115–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(73)90041-0.
Chen, H., Y. Jiang, C. Niu, G. Leng, and G. Tian. 2019. “Dynamic characteristics of saturated loess under different confining pressures: A microscopic analysis.” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 78 (2): 931–944. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-017-1101-9.
Cronin, S. J., V. E. Neall, J. A. Lecointre, and A. S. Palmer. 1999. “Dynamic interactions between lahars and stream flow: A case study from Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand.” Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 111 (1): 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1999)111%3C0028:DIBLAS%3E2.3.CO;2.
Delage, P. 2010. “A microstructure approach to the sensitivity and compressibility of some Eastern Canada sensitive clays.” Géotechnique 60 (5): 353–368. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2010.60.5.353.
Freundlich, H. 1935. Thixotropy. Hamburg, Germany: Hermann & Cie.
Frydman, S., M. Talesnick, S. Geffen, and A. Shvarzman. 2007. “Landslides and residual strength in marl profiles in Israel.” Eng. Geol. 89 (1–2): 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2006.09.009.
Gao, Q. F., M. Jrad, M. Hattab, J. M. Fleureau, and L. I. Ameur. 2020. “Pore morphology, porosity, and pore size distribution in kaolinitic remolded clays under triaxial loading.” Int. J. Geomech. 20 (6): 04020057. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001682.
Hattab, M., S. Bouziri-Adrouche, and J. M. Fleureau. 2010. “Evolution of microtexture in a kaolinitic matrix on a axisymmetric triaxial path.” Can. Geotech. J. 47 (1): 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1139/T09-098.
Jacobsson, A., and R. Pusch. 1972. “Thixotropic action in remoulded quick clay.” Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol. 5 (1): 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02634659.
Jeanjean, P. 2006. “Setup characteristics of suction anchors for soft Gulf of Mexico clays: Experience from field installation and retrieval.” In Proc., Offshore Technology Conf. New York: Curran Associates. https://doi.org/10.4043/18005-MS.
Jeong, S. W., J. Locat, and S. Leroueil. 2012. “The effects of salinity and shear history on the rheological characteristics of illite-rich and Na-montmorillonite-rich clays.” Clays Clay Miner. 60 (2): 108–120. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2012.0600202.
Jeong, S. W., J. Locat, J. K. Torrance, and S. Leroueil. 2015. “Thixotropic and anti-thixotropic behaviors of fine-grained soils in various flocculated systems.” Eng. Geol. 196 (Sep): 119–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.07.014.
Karlsrud, K. 2012. “Prediction of load-displacement behavior and capacity of axially loaded piles in clay based on analyses and interpretation of pile load test results.” Doctoral thesis, Dept. of Civil and Transport Engineering, Norwegian Univ. of Science and Technology.
Kerr, P. F., and I. M. Drew. 1968. “Quick-clay slides in the U.S.A.” Eng. Geol. 2 (4): 215–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(68)90001-X.
Khaldoun, A., P. Moller, A. Fall, G. Wegdam, B. De Leeuw, Y. Méheust, J. O. Fossum, and D. Bonn. 2009. “Quick clay and landslides of clayey soils.” Phys. Rev. Lett. 103 (18): 188301. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.188301.
Kul’chitskii, G. B. 1975. “Thixotropy of soils of the middle Ob region and its consideration when constructing pile foundations.” Soil Mech. Found. Eng. 12 (3): 168–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01707641.
Lu, N. Z., J. N. Suhayda, D. B. Prior, B. D. Bornhold, G. H. Keller, W. J. Wiseman, L. D. Wright, and Z. S. Yang. 1991. “Sediment thixotropy and submarine mass movement, Huanghe Delta, China.” Geo-Mar. Lett. 11 (1): 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02431049.
Mesri, G., A. Rokhsar, and B. F. Bohor. 1975. “Composition and compressibility of typical samples of Mexico City clay.” Géotechnique 25 (3): 527–554. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1975.25.3.527.
Mitchell, J. K. 1960. “Fundamental aspects of thixotropy in soils.” Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 126 (1): 1586–1620. https://doi.org/10.1061/TACEAT.0008103.
Moretto, O. 1948. “Effect of natural hardening on the unconfined compression strength of remoulded clays.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 137–144. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Osipov, V. I., S. K. Nikolaeva, and V. N. Sokolov. 1984. “Microstructural changes associated with thixotropic phenomena in clay soils.” Géotechnique 34 (3): 293–303. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1984.34.3.293.
Peng, J., S. M. Luo, D. F. Wang, Y. Cao, D. J. DeGroot, and G. P. Zhang. 2021. “Multiple thixotropisms of liquid limit–consistency clays unraveled by multiscale experimentation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 148 (1): 04021165. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002705.
Perret, D., J. Locat, and P. Martignoni. 1996. “Thixotropic behavior during shear of a fine-grained mud from Eastern Canada.” Eng. Geol. 43 (1): 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(96)00031-2.
Peterfi, T. 1927. “Arch. Entwicklungsmech.” Organ 112: 660–695.
Ren, Y., S. Yang, K. H. Andersen, Q. Yang, and Y. Wang. 2021. “Thixotropy of soft clay: A review.” Eng. Geol. 19 (Jun): 106097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106097.
Rinaldi, V. A., and J. J. Clariá Jr. 2016. “Time dependent stress–strain behavior of bentonite slurries; effect of thixotropy.” Powder Technol. 291 (12): 311–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2015.12.036.
Romanov, S. V., and D. A. Romanov. 1997. “Procedure for impressing reinforced-concrete piles into leader holes using soil thixotropy.” Soil Mech. Found. Eng. 34 (1): 22–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02465085.
Rosenqvist, I. T. 1953. “Considerations on the sensitivity of Norwegian quick-clays.” Géotechnique 3 (5): 195–200. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1953.3.5.195.
Rueden, C. T., J. Schindelin, M. C. Hiner, B. E. DeZonia, A. E. Walter, E. T. Arena, and K. W. Eliceiri. 2017. “Imagej2: ImageJ for the next generation of scientific image data.” BMC Bioinf. 18 (Sep): 529. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12859-017-1934-z.
Seed, H. B., and C. K. Chan. 1959. “Thixotropic characteristics of compacted clays.” Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 124 (1): 894–916. https://doi.org/10.1061/TACEAT.0007743.
Seng, S., and H. Tanaka. 2012. “Properties of very soft clays: A study of thixotropic hardening and behavior under low consolidation pressure.” Soils Found. 52 (2): 335–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2012.02.010.
Shahriar, A. R., M. Z. Abedin, and R. Jadid. 2018. “Thixotropic aging and its effect on 1-D compression behavior of soft reconstituted clays.” Appl. Clay Sci. 153 (12): 217–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.12.029.
Shahriar, A. R., and R. Jadid. 2018. “An experimental investigation on the effect of thixotropic aging on primary and secondary compression of reconstituted dredged clays.” Appl. Clay Sci. 162 (5): 524–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2018.05.023.
Skempton, A. W., and R. D. Northey. 1952. “The sensitivity of clays.” Géotechnique 3 (1): 30–53. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1952.3.1.30.
Solonenko, V. P. 1977. “Landslides and collapses in seismic zones and their prediction.” Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol. 15 (1): 4–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02592633.
Standards Norway. 2017. Geotechnical investigation and testing—Laboratory testing of soil—Part 6: Fall cone test (ISO 17892-6:2017). NS-EN ISO 17892-6:2017. Lysaker, Norway: Standards Norway.
Suthaker, N. N., and J. D. Scott. 1997. “Thixotropic strength measurement of oil sand fine tailings.” Can. Geotech. J. 34 (6): 974–984. https://doi.org/10.1139/t97-064.
Utomo, W. H., and A. R. Dexter. 1981. “Age hardening of agricultural top soils.” J. Soil Sci. 32 (3): 335–350. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1981.tb01710.x.
Wang, P. X., Q. Li, and C. F. Li. 2014. Geology of the China seas. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
Wu, Z. L., Y. F. Deng, S. Y. Liu, Q. W. Liu, Y. G. Chen, and F. S. Zha. 2016. “Strength and micro-structure evolution of compacted soils modified by admixtures of cement and metakaolin.” Appl. Clay Sci. 127–128 (3): 44–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.03.040.
Yang, S., and K. H. Andersen. 2016. “Thixotropy of marine clays.” Geotech. Test. J. 39 (2): 20150020. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20150020.
Yang, S., Y. Ren, and K. H. Andersen. 2021. “Effects of thixotropy and reconsolidation on the undrained shear characteristics of remoulded marine clays.” Ocean Eng. 239 (Nov): 109888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.109888.
Yang, S., Y. Ren, K. H. Andersen, Y. Wang, G. M. F. Jannuzzi, and R. D. G. Pascual. 2020. “Thixotropy of clays with various index properties.” In Proc., 4th Int. Symp. on Frontiers in Offshore Geotechnics. London: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
Ye, B., H. Hu, X. Bao, and P. Lu. 2018. “Reliquefaction behavior of sand and its mesoscopic mechanism.” Soil. Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 114 (6): 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.06.024.
Zakeri, A., E. Liedtke, E. C. Clukey, and P. Jeanjean. 2014. “Long-term axial capacity of deepwater jetted piles.” Géotechnique 64 (12): 966–980. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.14.P.014.
Zhang, G., H. Yin, and D. J. DeGroot. 2013. “Thixotropism of micron-sized saltwater clay flocs.” Géotechnique Lett. 3 (4): 162–165. https://doi.org/10.1680/geolett.13.00049.
Zhang, X. W., L. W. Kong, and I. J. Li. 2015. “An investigation of alterations in Zhanjiang clay properties due to atmospheric oxidation.” Géotechnique 64 (12): 1003–1009. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.14.P.037.
Zhang, X. W., L. W. Kong, A. W. Yang, and H. M. Sayem. 2017. “Thixotropic mechanism of clay: A microstructural investigation.” Soils Found. 57 (1): 23–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2017.01.002.

Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Go to Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148Issue 8August 2022

History

Received: May 20, 2021
Accepted: Mar 30, 2022
Published online: May 24, 2022
Published in print: Aug 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Oct 24, 2022

Permissions

Request permissions for this article.

Authors

Affiliations

Postdoctoral Fellow, State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian Univ. of Technology, Dalian 116024, China. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3119-2338. Email: [email protected]
Shaoli Yang [email protected]
Principle Engineer, Dept. of Marine Geotechnics, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Oslo N-0855, Norway. Email: [email protected]
Shixing Zhang [email protected]
Ph.D. Candidate, State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian Univ. of Technology, Dalian 116024, China. Email: [email protected]
Professor, State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian Univ. of Technology, Dalian 116024, China. Email: [email protected]
Professor, State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian Univ. of Technology, Dalian 116024, China (corresponding author). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9206-6335. Email: [email protected]
Senior Engineer, Key Laboratory for Far-shore Wind Power Technology of Zhejiang Province, PowerChina Huadong Engineering Corporation Limited, Hangzhou 310014, China. Email: [email protected]
Caiyun Huan [email protected]
Senior Engineer, Key Laboratory for Far-shore Wind Power Technology of Zhejiang Province, PowerChina Huadong Engineering Corporation Limited, Hangzhou 310014, China. Email: [email protected]

Metrics & Citations

Metrics

Citations

Download citation

If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.

Cited by

  • Experimental investigation on the thixotropic effect on the mechanical recovery characteristics of clay–structure interface, Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 10.1080/1064119X.2022.2144558, (1-11), (2022).

View Options

Get Access

Access content

Please select your options to get access

Log in/Register Log in via your institution (Shibboleth)
ASCE Members: Please log in to see member pricing

Purchase

Save for later Information on ASCE Library Cards
ASCE Library Cards let you download journal articles, proceedings papers, and available book chapters across the entire ASCE Library platform. ASCE Library Cards remain active for 24 months or until all downloads are used. Note: This content will be debited as one download at time of checkout.

Terms of Use: ASCE Library Cards are for individual, personal use only. Reselling, republishing, or forwarding the materials to libraries or reading rooms is prohibited.
ASCE Library Card (5 downloads)
$105.00
Add to cart
ASCE Library Card (20 downloads)
$280.00
Add to cart
Buy Single Article
$35.00
Add to cart

Get Access

Access content

Please select your options to get access

Log in/Register Log in via your institution (Shibboleth)
ASCE Members: Please log in to see member pricing

Purchase

Save for later Information on ASCE Library Cards
ASCE Library Cards let you download journal articles, proceedings papers, and available book chapters across the entire ASCE Library platform. ASCE Library Cards remain active for 24 months or until all downloads are used. Note: This content will be debited as one download at time of checkout.

Terms of Use: ASCE Library Cards are for individual, personal use only. Reselling, republishing, or forwarding the materials to libraries or reading rooms is prohibited.
ASCE Library Card (5 downloads)
$105.00
Add to cart
ASCE Library Card (20 downloads)
$280.00
Add to cart
Buy Single Article
$35.00
Add to cart

Media

Figures

Other

Tables

Share

Share

Copy the content Link

Share with email

Email a colleague

Share