Examining the Food-Energy-Water-Environment Nexus in Transboundary River Basins through a Human Dimension Lens: Columbia River Basin
Publication: Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
Volume 147, Issue 10
Abstract
Previous food-energy-water-environment (FEWE) nexus studies have primarily focused on technical aspects, such as data analysis and model development. However, to inform policy and the resulting management of resources in politically complex transboundary systems, nontechnical human factors in the FEWE nexus should also be considered. This paper explores the human dimension of the FEWE nexus in the Columbia River basin between the US and Canada. We hosted a workshop with regional government agencies to review and evaluate current policies and management of the institutional aspect of FEWE resources. We then surveyed residents from both the US and Canada, who share transboundary water resources in the region, to evaluate their awareness of the FEWE nexus and its related policies, representing the residential aspect. The outcomes of the workshop showed that (1) a consensus of common metrics for all sectors (food, energy, water, and environment) can provide a uniform basis for cross-sectoral comparison; (2) it is critical to have adaptive management and interagency coordination mechanisms; and (3) the support of local residents is key to successful policy implementation. The survey results suggested that residents understand a strong relationship between water and energy sustainability. Females and renters showed stronger support for policies related to FEWE sustainability. Combining knowledge from the workshop and survey will support the development of a more realistic modeling framework.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Following the Institutional Review Board’s procedure, the raw data of the workshop (recording and meeting minutes) and the survey (actual responses) are not publicly available due to the privacy of participants. The survey questions and high-level statistics are given in the Supplemental Materials, and no other data was used in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This paper is supported by the US National Science Foundation (EAR #1804560) and the Faculty Research Grant at Lehigh University. We would like to thank the editor, the associate editor, and three anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions to improve the quality of the manuscript.
References
Abdullaev, I., and S. Rakhmatullaev. 2014. “Data management for integrated water resources management in Central Asia.” J. Hydroinf. 16 (6): 1425–1440. https://doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2014.097.
Allen, C. 2019. “Columbia River basin.” Accessed September 30, 2019. https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/columbia-river-basin.
Ansari, M. 2009. “17000 Chinese workers from the three gorges dam project would build Daimer-Bhasha dam in Pakistan.” Accessed October 26, 2019. https://reviewandanalysis.blogspot.com/2009/09/17000-chinese-workers-from-three-gorges.html.
Babbar-Sebens, M., S. Mukhopadhyay, V. B. Singh, and A. D. Piemonti. 2015. “A web-based software tool for participatory optimization of conservation practices in watersheds.” Environ. Modell. Software 69 (Jul): 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2015.03.011.
Bach, H., P. Glennie, R. Taylor, T. J. Clausen, F. Holzwarth, K. M. Jensen, A. Mejia, and S. Schmeier. 2014. Cooperation for water, energy, and food security in transboundary basins under changing climate. Vientiane, Laos: Mekong River Commission.
Badham, J., et al. 2019. “Effective modeling for integrated water resource management: A guide to contextual practices by phases and steps and future opportunities.” Environ. Modell. Software 116 (2): 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2019.02.013.
Berry, L. H., J. Koski, C. Verkuijl, C. Strambo, and G. Piggot. 2019. Making space: How public participation shapes environmental decision-making. Settle, WA: Stockholm Environment Institute.
Bizikova, L., D. Roy, D. Swanson, H. D. Venema, and M. McCandless. 2013. The water–energy–food security nexus: Towards a practical planning and decision-support framework for landscape investment and risk management. Winnipeg, Canada: International Institute for Sustainable Development.
Boas, I., F. Biermann, and N. Kanie. 2016. “Cross-sectoral strategies in global sustainability governance: Towards a nexus approach.” Int. Environ. Agreements: Polit. Law and Econ. 16 (3): 449–464.
Bonneville Power Administration. 2001. The Columbia River system inside story. 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Bonneville Power Administration.
Bonneville Power Administration. 2021. “Submit comments.” Accessed February 19, 2021. https://publiccomments.bpa.gov/OpenCommentListing.aspx.
British Columbia. 2019. Columbia river treaty: 2019 community meetings summary report. Victoria, Canada: British Columbia.
Brunell, D. C. 2018. “Columbia River Treaty talks too vital to ignore.” Accessed September 2, 2019. https://www.rentonreporter.com/business/columbia-river-treaty-talks-too-vital-to-ignore/.
Bureau of Reclamation. 2016. SECURE water act section 9503(c)—Reclamation climate change and water. Denver: Bureau of Reclamation.
Bureau of Reclamation. 2020. “Federal Columbia river power system hydrosystem.” Accessed October 17, 2020. https://www.usbr.gov/pn/fcrps/hydro/index.html.
Cottrell, S. P. 2003. “Influence of sociodemographics and environmental attitudes on general responsible environmental behavior.” Environ. Behav. 35 (3): 347–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916503035003003.
Craven, J., H. Angarita, and G. Corzo. 2016. “SimBasin: Serious gaming for integrated decision-making in the Magdalena-Cauca basin.” In EGU General Assembly Conf. Abstracts. Munich, Germany: European Union of Geosciences.
De Strasser, L., A. Lipponen, M. Howells, S. Stec, and C. Bréthaut. 2016. “A methodology to assess the water energy food ecosystems nexus in transboundary river basins.” Water 8 (2): 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020059.
Eccles, R. G., K. M. Perkins, and G. Serafeim. 2012. “How to become a sustainable company.” MIT Sloan Manage. Rev. 53 (4): 43–50.
Elsawah, S., et al. 2020. “Eight grand challenges in socio-environmental systems modeling.” Socio-Environ. Syst. Modell. 2: 16226. https://doi.org/10.18174/sesmo.2020a16226.
Environics Institute for Survey Research. 2018. Canada’s world survey. Toronto: Environics Institute for Survey Research.
Fasel, M., C. Bréthaut, E. Rouholahnejad, M. A. Lacayo-Emery, and A. Lehmann. 2016. “Blue water scarcity in the Black Sea catchment: Identifying key actors in the water-ecosystem-energy-food nexus.” Environ. Sci. Policy 66 (Dec): 140–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.09.004.
Foundation for Water and Energy Education. 2020. “Overview of hydropower in the northwest.” Accessed August 19, 2020. https://fwee.org/education/the-nature-of-water-power/overview-of-hydropower-in-the-northwest/.
Fowler, J. 2019. “Homeowner costs renters don’t pay.” Accessed September 24, 2019. https://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0411/7-homeowner-costs-renters-dont-pay.aspx.
Gantla, S., L. Bernacchi, J. D. Wulfhorst, M. Reyna, L. N. McNamee, S. Irizarry, S. Kane, and B. Foltz. 2015. “Climate change risk perceptions and adaptive strategies among Inland Pacific Northwest wheat producers, regional approaches to climate change.” Accessed July 14, 2021. https://www.reacchpna.org/sites/default/files/Climate_Change_and_Associated_Risk_Perceptions_3-4-15.pdf.
Givens, J. E., J. Padowski, C. D. Guzman, K. Malek, R. Witinok-Huber, B. Cosens, M. Briscoe, J. Boll, and J. Adam. 2018. “Incorporating social system dynamics in the Columbia River basin: Food-energy-water resilience and sustainability modeling in the Yakima River basin.” Front. Environ. Sci. 6 (Sep): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2018.00104.
Glass, C., A. Cook, and A. R. Ingersoll. 2016. “Do women leaders promote sustainability? Analyzing the effect of corporate governance composition on environmental performance.” Bus. Strategy Environ. 25 (7): 495–511. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.1879.
Hargrove, W. L., and J. M. Heyman. 2020. “A comprehensive process for stakeholder identification and engagement in addressing wicked water resources problems.” Land 9 (4): 119. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9040119.
Harvey, M. 2014. “The food-energy-climate change trilemma: Toward a socio-economic analysis.” Theory, Culture Soc. 31 (5): 155–182.
Helmer, J. 2018. “In the Columbia–Snake River basin, salmon are losing their way.” Accessed September 24, 2019. https://www.nrdc.org/stories/columbia-snake-river-basin-salmon-are-losing-their-way.
Hume, M. 2018. “B.C. residents consider salmon a cultural touchstone, survey finds.” Accessed October 2, 2019. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/bc-residents-consider-salmon-a-cultural-touchstone-survey-finds/article594381/.
Hyun, J. Y., S. Y. Huang, Y. C. E. Yang, V. Tidwell, and J. Macknick. 2019. “Using a coupled agent-based modeling approach to analyze the role of risk perception in water management decisions.” Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 23 (5): 2261–2278. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-2261-2019.
Johnsson-Latham, G. 2007. A study on gender equality as a prerequisite for sustainable development. Stockholm, Sweden: Environment Advisory Council.
Karabulut, A. A., A. Udias, and O. Vigiak. 2019. “Assessing the policy scenarios for the ecosystem water food energy (EWFE) nexus in the Mediterranean region.” Ecosyst. Serv. 35 (Jul): 231–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.12.013.
Keskinen, M., P. Someth, A. Salmivaara, and M. Kummu. 2015. “Water-energy-food nexus in a transboundary river basin: The case of Tonle Sap Lake, Mekong River basin.” Water (Switzerland) 7 (10): 5416–5436. https://doi.org/10.3390/w7105416.
Keskinen, M., and O. Varis. 2016. “Water-energy-food nexus in large Asian river basins.” Water (Switzerland) 8 (10): 446. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100446.
Khan, H. F., Y. C. E. Yang, H. Xie, and C. Ringler. 2017. “A coupled modeling framework for sustainable watershed management in transboundary river basins.” Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 21: 6275–6288.
Kythreotis, A. P., C. Mantyka-Pringle, T. G. Mercer, L. E. Whitmarsh, A. Corner, J. Paavola, C. Chambers, B. A. Miller, and N. Castree. 2019. “Citizen social science for more integrative and effective climate action: A science-policy perspective.” Front. Environ. Sci. 7 (2): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2019.00010.
Larkin, A., C. Hoolohan, and C. McLachlan. 2020. “Embracing context and complexity to address environmental challenges in the water-energy-food nexus.” Futures 123 (8): 102612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2020.102612.
Leck, H., D. Conway, M. Bradshaw, and J. Rees. 2015. “Tracing the water–energy–food nexus: Description, theory and practice.” Geogr. Compass 9 (8): 445–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12222.
Lehman, A., N. O’Rourke, L. Hatcher, and E. J. Stepanski. 2005. JMP for basic univariate and multivariate statistics: A step-by-step guide. Cary, NC: SAS Institute.
Li, H., M. S. Wigmosta, H. Wu, M. Huang, Y. Ke, A. M. Coleman, and L. R. Leung. 2013. “A physically based runoff routing model for land surface and earth system models.” J. Hydrometeorol. 14 (3): 808–828. https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-12-015.1.
Loucks, D. P. 1997. “Quantifying trends in system sustainability.” Hydrol. Sci. J. 42 (4): 513–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626669709492051.
Madani, K., T. W. Pierce, and A. Mirchi. 2017. “Serious games on environmental management.” Sustainable Cities Soc. 29 (Feb): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2016.11.007.
Metcalfe, B. 2018. “Columbia River Treaty: What’s on the table?” Accessed September 11, 2019. https://www.nelsonstar.com/news/columbia-river-treaty-whats-on-the-table/.
Michel, D. 2018. “Spokesman review guest opinion: A modern Columbia River treaty needs to treat the Columbia as one river.” Accessed August 30, 2019. https://www.wildsalmon.org/news-and-media/projects/.
Mohtar, R. H., and B. Daher. 2016. “Water-energy-food nexus framework for facilitating multi-stakeholder dialogue.” Water Int. 8060 (3): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2016.1149759.
Mukaka, M. 2012. “Statistics corner: A guide to appropriate use of correlation coefficient in medical research.” Malawi Med. J. 24 (3): 69–71.
National Research Council. 2004. Managing the Columbia River: Instream flows, water withdrawals, and salmon survival. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Newig, J. 2007. “Does public participation in environmental decisions lead to improved environmental quality.” Commun. Cooperation Participation (Int. J. Sustainability Commun.) 1 (1): 51–71.
Northwest Power and Conservation Council. 2016. Seventh Northwest conservation and electric power plan. Portland, OR: Northwest Power and Conservation Council.
Northwest Power and Conservation Council. 2019a. “Dams: Impacts on salmon and steelhead.” Accessed August 30, 2019. https://www.nwcouncil.org/reports/columbia-river-history/damsimpacts.
Northwest Power and Conservation Council. 2019b. “Irrigation.” Accessed August 30, 2019. https://www.nwcouncil.org/reports/columbia-river-history/irrigation.
Norton, B. G. 2002. “Environmental values and adaptive management, with Anne Steinemann.” Searching Sustainability 10 (4): 514–548. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511613821.035.
Piemonti, A. D., M. Babbar-Sebens, and E. Jane Luzar. 2013. “Optimizing conservation practices in watersheds: Do community preferences matter?” Water Resour. Res. 49 (10): 6425–6449. https://doi.org/10.1002/wrcr.20491.
Portney, K. E., B. Hannibal, C. Goldsmith, P. McGee, X. Liu, and A. Vedlitz. 2018. “Awareness of the food–energy–water nexus and public policy support in the United States: Public attitudes among the American people.” Environ. Behav. 50 (4): 375–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916517706531.
Rees, J. 2013. “Geography and the nexus: Presidential address and record of the royal geographical society (with IBG) AGM 2013.” Geogr. J. 179 (3): 279–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12050.
Rice, J. A. 2006. Mathematical statistics and data analysis. 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Duxbury Press.
Sandoval-Solis, S., D. C. McKinney, and D. P. Loucks. 2011. “Sustainability index for water resources planning and management.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage. 137 (5): 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000134.
Shih, T. H., and X. Fan. 2009. “Comparing response rates in e-mail and paper surveys: A meta-analysis.” Educ. Res. Rev. 4 (1): 26–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2008.01.003.
Siddiqi, A., A. Kajenthira, and L. D. Anadón. 2013. “Bridging decision networks for integrated water and energy planning.” Energy Strategy Rev. 2 (1): 46–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2013.02.003.
Simpson, G. B., and G. P. W. Jewitt. 2019. “The development of the water-energy-food nexus as a framework for achieving resource security: A review.” Front. Environ. Sci. 7 (2): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2019.00008.
Smajgl, A., J. Ward, and L. Pluschke. 2016. “The water-food-energy Nexus: Realising a new paradigm.” J. Hydrol. 533 (Feb): 533–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.12.033.
Stern, C. V. 2019. Columbia river treaty review. Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service.
Sušnik, J., et al. 2018. “Multi-stakeholder development of a serious game to explore the water-energy-food-land-climate nexus: The SIM4NEXUS approach.” Water (Switzerland) 10 (2): 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10020139.
Talbot, C. J., et al. 2018. “The impact of flooding on aquatic ecosystem services.” Biogeochemistry 141 (3): 439–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-018-0449-7.
Thomas, M. 2015. “The slow and dangerous death of Pakistan’s Indus river delta.” Accessed February 7, 2021. https://qz.com/india/448049/the-slow-and-dangerous-death-of-pakistans-indus-river-delta/.
UN Water. 2008. “Transboundary waters—Sharing waters, sharing responsibilities.” Accessed September 18, 2019. https://www.unwater.org/publications/transboundary-waters-sharing-benefits-sharing-responsibilities/.
Upper Columbia Basin Environmental Collaborative. 2020. “OPINION: As Columbia River Treaty negotiators get serious, residents need to speak up.” Accessed October 2, 2020. https://www.nelsonstar.com/opinion/opinion-as-columbia-river-treaty-negotiators-get-serious-residents-need-to-speak-up/.
USACE. 2007. “The national drought study.” Accessed September12, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20070721083002/http://www.svp.iwr.usace.army.mil/ndspage.htm.
USACE. 2020. “Columbia river system operations EIS.” Accessed October 17, 2020. https://www.nwd.usace.army.mil/CRSO/Documents/#top.
USDA. 2020. “Effects of trade on the US Economy—2012.” Accessed May 10, 2021. https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/agricultural-trade-multipliers/2012-data-overview/.
US Department of State. 2021. “Columbia river treaty.” Accessed February 18, 2021. https://www.state.gov/columbia-river-treaty/.
Vernooy, R., S. Qiu, and X. Jianchu. 2006. “The power of participatory monitoring and evaluation: Insights from South-West China.” Dev. Pract. 16 (5): 400–411.
Walk, M. J., and A. A. Rupp. 2010. “Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient.” In Encyclopedia of research design, edited by N. J. Salkind, 1023–1026. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412961288.
White, D. D., J. L. Jones, R. Maciejewski, R. Aggarwal, and G. Mascaro. 2017. “Stakeholder analysis for the food-energy-water nexus in Phoenix, Arizona: Implications for nexus governance.” Sustainability (Switzerland) 9 (12): 2204. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122204.
Williams, B. K., R. C. Szaro, and C. D. Shapiro. 2009. Adaptive management: The US Department of the Interior technical guide. Washington, DC: US Department of the Interior.
Yang, J., Y. C. E. Yang, H. F. Khan, H. Xie, C. Ringler, A. Ogilvie, O. Seidou, A. G. Djibo, F. van Weert, and R. Tharme. 2018a. “Quantifying the sustainability of water availability for the water-food-energy-ecosystem nexus in the Niger River basin.” Earth’s Future 6 (9): 1292–1310. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018EF000923.
Yang, Y. C. E., C. Brown, W. Yu, J. Wescoat, Jr., and C. Ringler. 2014. “Water governance and adaptation to climate change in the Indus River basin.” J. Hydrol. 519 (Nov): 2527–2537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.08.055.
Yang, Y. C. E., X. Cai, and D. M. Stipanović. 2009. “A decentralized optimization algorithm for multiagent system-based watershed management.” Water Resour. Res. 45 (8): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008WR007634.
Yang, Y. E., S. Passarelli, R. J. Lovell, and C. Ringler. 2018b. “Gendered perspectives of ecosystem services: A systematic review.” Ecosyst. Serv. 31 (Jun): 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.03.015.
Yang, Y. E., C. Ringler, C. Brown, and M. A. H. Mondal. 2016a. “Modeling the agricultural water–energy–food nexus in the Indus River basin, Pakistan.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage. 142 (12): 04016062. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000710.
Yang, Y. E., S. Wi, P. A. Ray, C. M. Brown, and A. F. Khalil. 2016b. “The future nexus of the Brahmaputra River Basin: Climate, water, energy and food trajectories.” Global Environ. Change 37 (Mar): 16–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.01.002.
Yearly, S., S. Cinderby, J. Forrester, P. Bailey, and P. Rosen. 2003. “Participatory modelling and the local governance of the politics of UK air pollution: A three-city case study.” Environ. Values 12 (2): 247–262.
Yoshida, Y., H. S. Lee, B. H. Trung, H. D. Tran, M. K. Lall, K. Kakar, and T. D. Xuan. 2020. “Impacts of mainstream hydropower dams on fisheries and agriculture in lower Mekong basin.” Sustainability (Switzerland) 12 (6): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062408.
Yu, Y., P. Tang, J. Zhao, B. Liu, and D. Mclaughlin. 2019. “Evolutionary cooperation in transboundary river basins.” Water Resour. Res. 55 (11): 9977–9994. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019WR025608.
Zeng, Y., Y. Cai, P. Jia, and H. Jee. 2012. “Development of a web-based decision support system for supporting integrated water resources management in Daegu City, South Korea.” Expert Syst. Appl. 39 (11): 10091–10102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.02.065.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
Volume 147 • Issue 10 • October 2021
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Nov 13, 2020
Accepted: Jun 15, 2021
Published online: Aug 5, 2021
Published in print: Oct 1, 2021
Discussion open until: Jan 5, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Gaiqiang Yang, Shuang Xia, Lijuan Huo, Mo Li, Chenglong Zhang, Yuxin Su, Dongpeng Guo, Two-Stage Multiobjective Decision-Making Method Based on Agricultural Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Case Study in Hetao Irrigation District, China, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 10.1061/JWRMD5.WRENG-5856, 149, 8, (2023).
- Vicente Jander, Sebastián Vicuña, Oscar Melo, Álvaro Lorca, Adaptation to Climate Change in Basins within the Context of the Water-Energy-Food Nexus, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 10.1061/JWRMD5.WRENG-5566, 149, 11, (2023).
- Dor Hirsh Bar Gai, Ekundayo Shittu, Stochastic Dominance of Renewables to Replace Hydropower Under Policy Uncertainty, IEEE Access, 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3170445, 10, (45855-45869), (2022).
- Lina Wu, Amin Elshorbagy, Md Shahabul Alam, Dynamics of water-energy-food nexus interactions with climate change and policy options, Environmental Research Communications, 10.1088/2515-7620/ac4bab, 4, 1, (015009), (2022).
- Dor Hirsh Bar Gai, Ekundayo Shittu, Y. C. Ethan Yang, Hong-Yi Li, A Comprehensive Review of the Nexus of Food, Energy, and Water Systems: What the Models Tell Us, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001564, 148, 6, (2022).
- Chung-Yi Lin, Y.C. Ethan Yang, Keyvan Malek, Jennifer C. Adam, An investigation of coupled natural human systems using a two-way coupled agent-based modeling framework, Environmental Modelling & Software, 10.1016/j.envsoft.2022.105451, 155, (105451), (2022).
- Ilan Stavi, Anastasia Paschalidou, Apostolos P. Kyriazopoulos, Rares Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, Si Mokrane Siad, Malgorzata Suska-Malawska, Dragisa Savic, Joana Roque de Pinho, Lisa Thalheimer, David Samuel Williams, Nurit Hashimshony-Yaffe, Kees van der Geest, Claudia M. d. S. Cordovil, Andrej Ficko, Multidimensional Food Security Nexus in Drylands under the Slow Onset Effects of Climate Change, Land, 10.3390/land10121350, 10, 12, (1350), (2021).
- D. Hirsh Bar Gai, E. Shittu, Hydropower Replacement and the Nexus of Food-Energy-Water Systems: Impacts on Climate Performance, 2021 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), 10.1109/IEEM50564.2021.9672812, (344-348), (2021).