Students’ Tendency to Walk to School: Case Study of Tehran
Publication: Journal of Urban Planning and Development
Volume 139, Issue 2
Abstract
The recent decrease in physical activity among youth, which has resulted in increasing obesity and in overweight individuals, has attracted global attention and a renewed sense of investigation in both public and academic circles. However, using active modes of transportation (AMT) to and from school can serve as a bulwark against inactivity and the increase in cases of obesity and excess weight. In an attempt to study and counteract this growing phenomenon, more than 4,700 questionnaires were distributed in 92 schools throughout Tehran in a random stratified sampling method according to location and gender differences, and 3,441 responses were received (72% response rate). Significant factors affecting each gender’s propensity to choose active modes of transportation to and from school were separated and identified. Among females, 45% chose an AMT to school, and 52% did so for return trips home, both of which are higher than the males’ propensity to choose AMT. Among males, 39% chose an AMT to school, and 46% did so for the way back. Female tolerance in active modes of transportation also proved to be greater than that of males such that with an increase in costly factors (e.g., increases in travel time), economic considerations (e.g., household car ownership), and tougher topography, females substituted away from AMT less than males.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Shahrbanu Khaniki for her kind assistance in data collection. We also would like to thank the assistance of three anonymous reviewers whose comments were helpful in revising the article.
References
Alexander, L. M., Inchley, J., Todd, J., Currie, D., Cooper, A. R., and Currie, C. (2005). “The broader impact of walking to school among adolescents: Seven day accelerometry based study.” BMJ, 331(7524), 1061–1062.
Alshalalfah, B., and Shalaby, A. (2007). “Case study: Relationship of walk access distance to transit with service, travel, and personal characteristics.” J. Urban Plann. Dev., 133(2), 114–118.
Alton, D., Adab, P., Roberts, L., and Barrett, T. (2007). “Relationship between walking levels and perceptions of the local neighborhood environment.” Arch. Dis. Child., 92(1), 29–33.
Aultman-Hall, L., Roorda, M., and Baetz, B. W. (1997). “Using GIS for evaluation of neighborhood pedestrian accessibility.” J. Urban Plann. Dev., 123(1), 10–17.
Booth, M. L., et al. (2003). “Change in the prevalence of overweight and obesity among young Australians, 1969–1997.” Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 77(1), 29–36.
Bradshaw, R., and Atkins, S. (1996). “The use of public transport for school journeys in London.” Proc., Seminar F: Public Transport Planning and Operations, Brunel Univ., England, 405.
Braza, M., Shoemaker, W., and Seeley, A. (2004). “Neighborhood design and rates of walking and biking to elementary school in 34 California communities.” Am. J. Health Promot., 19(2), 128–136.
Bungum, T. J., Lounsbery, M., Moonie, S., and Gast, J. (2009). “Prevalence and correlates of walking and biking to school among adolescents.” J. Community Health, 34(2), 129–134.
Carlin, J., Stevenson, M., Roberts, I., Bennett, C., Gelman, A., and Nolan, T. (1997). “Walking to school and traffic exposure in Australian children.” Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health., 21(3), 286–292.
Cavill, N., Biddle, S., and Sallis, J. F. (2004). “Health enhancing physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents.” J. Sports Sci., 22(8), 679–701.
City Mayors. (2011). “The largest cities in the world by land area, population and density.” 〈http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/largest-cities-density-125.html〉 (Jul. 29, 2011).
Cooper, A. R., Andersen, L. B., Wedderkopp, N., Page, A. S., and Froberg, K. (2005). “Physical activity levels of children who walk, cycle, or are driven to school.” Am. J. Prev. Med., 29(3), 179–184.
Copperman, R., and Bhat, C. (2007). “An analysis of the determinants of children’s weekend physical activity participation.” Transportation, 34(1), 67–87.
Dellinger, A. M., and Staunton, C. E. (2002). “Barriers to children walking and biking to school—United States, 1999.” MMWR, 51(32), 701–704.
DiGuiseppi, C., Roberts, I., Li, L., and Alle, D. (1998). “Determinants of car travel on daily journeys to school: Cross sectional survey of primary school children.” BMJ, 316(7142), 1426–1428.
Dyck, D. V., Bourdeaudhuij, I. D., Cardon, G., and Deforche, B. (2010). “Criterion distances and correlates of active transportation to school in Belgian older adolescents.” Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act., 7(1), 87–96.
Ebbeling, C. B., Pawlak, D. B., and Ludwig, D. S. (2002). “Childhood obesity: Public-health crisis, common sense cure.” Lancet, 360(9331), 473–482.
Evenson, K., Huston, S., McMillen, B., Bors, P., and Ward, D. (2003). “Statewide prevalence and correlates of walking and bicycling to school.” Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med., 157(9), 887–892.
Evenson, K. R., et al. (2006). “Girls’ perception of physical environmental factors and transportation: Reliability and association with physical activity and active transport to school.” Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act., 3(1), 28.
Ewing, R., Schroeer, W., and Greene, W. (2004). “School location and student travel: Analysis of factors affecting mode choice.” Transportation planning and analysis, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
Freedman, D. S., Srinivasan, S. R., Valdez, R. A., Williamson, D. F., and Berenson, G. S. (1997). “Secular increases in relative weight and adiposity among children over two decades: The Bogalusa Heart Study.” Pediatrics, 99(3), 420–426.
Fulton, J. E., Shisler, J. L., Yore, M. M., and Caspersen, C. J. (2005). “Active transportation to school: Findings from a national survey.” Res. Q. Exercise Sport, 76(3), 352–357.
Ham, S. A., Martin, S., and Kohl, H. W. (2008). “Changes in the percentage of students who walk or bike to school—United States, 1969 and 2001.” J. Phys. Act. Health, 5(2), 205–215.
Heckman, J. (2012). “The developmental origins of health.” Health Econ., 21(1), 24–29.
Hedley, A. A., Ogden, C. L., Johnson, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., and Flegal, K. M. (2004). “Prevalence of overweight and obesity among US children, adolescents and adults, 1999–2002.” JAMA, 291(23), 2847–2850.
Hensher, D., Rose, J., and Greene, W. (2005). Applied choice analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Hume, C., Timperio, A., Salmon, J., Carver, C., Giles-Corti, B., and Crawford, D. (2009). “Walking and cycling to school: Predictors of increases among children and adolescents.” Am. J. Prev. Med., 36(3), 195–200.
Jumsan, K., Jongmin, K., Misun, J., and Seongyoung, K. (2005). “Determination of a bus service coverage area reflecting passenger attributes.” J. East. Asia Soc. Transp. Stud., 6, 529–543.
Keil, U. (2005). “The worldwide WHO MONICA project: Results and perspectives.” Gesundheitswesen, 67(1), 38–45.
Kerr, J., Frank, L., Sallis, J., and Chapman, J. (2007). “Urban form correlates of pedestrian travel in youth: Differences by gender, race-ethnicity and household attributes.” Transp. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ., 12(3), 177–182.
Kerr, J., Rosenberg, D., Sallis, J. F., Saelens, B. E., Frank, L. D., and Conway, T. L. (2006). “Active commuting to school: Associations with environment and parental concerns.” Med. Sci. Sports Exercise, 38(4), 787–794.
Larsen, K., Gilliland, J., Hess, P., Tucker, P., Irwin, J., and He, M. (2009). “The influence of the physical environment and sociodemographic characteristics on children’s mode of travel to and from school.” Am. J. Public Health, 99(3), 520–526.
Maes, H. H. M., Neale, M. C., and Eaves, L. J. (1997). “Genetic and environmental factors in relative body weight and human adiposity.” Behav. Genet., 27(4), 325–351.
Martin, S. L., Lee, S. M., and Lowry, R. (2007). “National prevalence and correlates of walking and bicycling to school.” Am. J. Prev. Med., 33(2), 98–105.
McDonald, N. C. (2007). “Active transportation to school: Trends among U.S. schoolchildren, 1969–2001.” Am. J. Prev. Med., 32(6), 509–516.
McDonald, N. C. (2007a). “Children’s mode choice for the school trip: The role of distance and school location in walking to school.” Transportation, 35(1), 23–35.
McDonald, N. C. (2008b). “Critical factors for active transportation to school among low-income and minority students: Evidence from the 2001 national household travel survey.” Am. J. Prev. Med., 34(4), 341–344.
McDonald, N. C. (2008c). “Household interactions and children’s school travel: The effect of parental work patterns on walking and biking to school.” J. Transp. Geogr., 16(5), 324–331.
McMillan, T. E. (2007). “The relative influence of urban form on a child’s travel mode to school.” Transp. Res. Part A: Policy Pract., 41(1), 69–79.
McMillan, T. E., Day, K., Boarnet, M., Alfonzo, M., and Anderson, C. (2006). “Johnny walks to school—Does Jane? Sex differences in children’s active travel to school.” Child. Youth Environ., 16(1), 75–89.
Merom, D., Tudor-Locke, C., Bauman, A., and Rissel, C. (2006). “Active commuting to school among NSW primary school children: Implications for public health.” Health Place, 12(4), 678–687.
Metcalf, B., Voss, L., Jeffery, A., Perkins, J., and Wilkin, T. (2004). “Physical activity cost of the school run: Impact on schoolchildren of being driven to school.” BMJ, 329(7470), 832–833.
Mohammadpour, B., Rashidi, A., Karandish, M., Eshraghian, M. R., and Kalantari, N. (2004). “Prevalence of overweight and obesity in adolescent Tehrani students 2000-2001: An epidemic health problem.” Public Health Nutr., 7(5), 645–648.
Mota, J., Gomes, H., Almeida, M., Ribeiro, J. C., Carvalho, J., and Santos, M. P. (2007). “Active versus passive transportation to school-differences in screen time, socio-economic position and perceived environmental characteristics in adolescent girls.” Ann. Hum. Biol., 34(3), 273–282.
Municipality of Tehran. (2011). “Migration to Tehran.” Atlas of Tehran metropolis, 〈http://atlas.tehran.ir/Default.aspx?tabid=272〉 (Jul. 29, 2011).
Nelson, N. M., Foley, E., O’Gorman, D. J., Moyna, N. M., and Woods, C. B. (2008). “Active commuting to school: How far is too far?” Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act., 5(1).
Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., McDowell, M. A., Tabak, C. J., and Flegal, K. M. (2006). “Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999–2004.” JAMA, 295(13), 1549–1555.
Rodriguez, A., and Vogt, A. C. (2009). “Demographic, environmental, access, and attitude factors that influence walking to School by elementary school-aged children.” J. Sch. Health, 79(6), 255–261.
Rosenberg, D. E., Sallis, J. F., Conway, T. L., Cain, K. L., and McKenzie, T. L. (2006). “Active transportation to school over 2 years in relation to weight status and physical activity.” Obesity, 14(10), 1771–1776.
Salmon, J., Salmon, L., Crawford, D., Hume, C., and Timperio, A. (2007). “Associations among individual, social, and environmental barriers and children’s walking or cycling to school.” Am. J. Health Promot., 22(2), 107–113.
Samimi, A., and Mohammadian, A. (2010). “Health impacts of urban development and transportation systems.” J. Urban Plann. Dev., 136(3), 208–213.
Samimi, A., Mohammadian, A., and Madanizadeh, S. (2009). “Effects of transportation and built environment on general health and obesity.” Transp. Res. Part D, 14(1), 67–71.
Schlossberg, M., Greene, J., Phillips, P. P., Johnson, B., and Parker, B. (2006). “School trips: Effects of urban form and distance on travel mode.” J. Am. Plann. Assoc., 72(3), 337–346.
Shi, Z., Lien, N., Kumar, B. N., and Holmboe-Ottesen, G. (2006). “Physical activity and associated socio-demographic factors among school adolescents in Jiangsu Province, China.” Prev. Med., 43(3), 218–221.
Sirard, J. R., Riner, W. F., McIver, K. L., and Pate, R. R. (2005). “Physical activity and active commuting to elementary school.” Med. Sci. Sports Exercise, 37(12), 2062–2069.
Southworth, M. (2005). “Designing the walkable city.” J. Urban Plann. Dev., 131(3), 246–257.
Spallek, M., Turner, C., Spinks, A., Bain, C., and McClure, R. (2006). “Walking to school: Distribution by age, sex and socio-economic status.” Health Promot. J. Aust., 17(2), 134–138.
Sullivan, S., and Morrall, J. (1996). “Walking distances to and from light-rail transit station.”, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Timperio, A., Crawford, D., Telford, A., and Salmon, J. (2004). “Perceptions about the local neighborhood and walking and cycling among children.” Am. J. Prev. Med., 38(1), 39–47.
Timperio, A., et al. (2006). “Personal, family, social, and environmental correlates of active commuting to school.” Am. J. Prev. Med., 30(1), 45–51.
Train, E. K. (2010). Discrete choice methods with simulation, 2nd Ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Troiano, R. P., and Flegal, K. M. (1998). “Overweight children and adolescents: Description, epidemiology and demographics.” Pediatrics, 101(Suppl. 2), 497–504.
Tudor-Locke, C., Ainsworth, B. E., Adair, L. S., and Popkin, B. M. (2003). “Objective physical activity of Filipino youth stratified for commuting mode to school.” Med. Sci. Sports Exercise, 35(3), 465–471.
U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services. (2011). “National Prevention Strategy and Agency Missions.” 〈http://www.hhs.gov/〉 (Jul. 29, 2011).
Väänänen, I., Vasankari, T., Mäntysaari, M., and Vihko, V. (2002). “Hormonal responses to daily strenuous walking during 4 successive days.” Eur. J. Appl. Physiol., 88(1–2), 122–127.
Wedderkopp, N., Froberg, K., Hansen, H. S., and Andersen, L. B. (2004). “Secular trends in physical fitness and obesity in Danish 9-year-old girls and boys: Odense school child study and Danish sub-study of the European Youth Heart Study.” Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports, 14(3), 150–155.
Wilson, J. E., Marshall, J., Wilson, R., and Krizek, K. J. (2010). “By foot, bus or car: Children’s school travel and school choice policy.” Environ. Plann. A, 42(9), 2168–2185.
World Health Organization (WHO). (1998). “Obesity: Preventing and managing the global epidemic.” Rep. of A WHO Consultation on Obesity, Geneva.
World Health Organization (WHO). (2008). Global strategy on diet, physical activity and health, Geneva.
Yelavich, S., et al. (2008). “Walking to school: Frequency and predictors among primary school children in Dunedin, New Zealand.” N. Z. Med. J., 121(1271), 51–58.
Yeung, J., Wearing, S., and Hills, A. P. (2008). “Child transport practices and perceived barriers in active commuting to school.” Transp. Res. Part A: Policy Pract., 42(6), 895–900.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Urban Planning and Development
Volume 139 • Issue 2 • June 2013
Pages: 144 - 152
Copyright
© 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Feb 16, 2012
Accepted: Nov 8, 2012
Published online: Nov 10, 2012
Published in print: Jun 1, 2013
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.