Alkali-Activated Mortar for Tunnel-Lining Structure Repair
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 31, Issue 10
Abstract
With the aging of tunnel structures, rehabilitation and repair has become an increasingly important part of tunnel maintenance. This paper investigates the use of alkali-activated mortar for tunnel-lining structure repair. First, the effects of NaOH concentration and ordinary portland cement (OPC) content on the fresh and hardened states of alkali-activated repair mortar (ARM) were studied by investigating its setting time and compressive strength. Second, the bond strength of ARM made from the optimum mix proportion was compared with that of cement repair mortar (CRM) using a self-design tunnel-lining-crack-treatment platform (TLCTP). Finally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were undertaken to study the morphology, mineral composition, and hydration products of ARM and CRM. It is found that the setting times of ARM are greatly shortened and its compressive strength is noticeably increased with increasing OPC content. Increasing the NaOH concentration from 10 to 12 M induces decrease in setting times and increase in compressive strength of ARM, but further increasing NaOH concentration to 14 M results in a slight increase in setting times and decrease in the compressive strength of ARM. Bond strength test results show that ARM made from an optimum mix proportion exhibits a bond strength superior to that of CRM in dry curing conditions. Although the presence of water has a negative effect on bond strength, ARM still shows better bond strength than CRM. XRD characterization indicates that ARM consists of sodium aluminosilicate hydrate (NASH) gel and calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel that are responsible for increasing its strength. SEM characterization reveals that ARM has a dense structure with voids filled with cementing agents, whereas the CRM shows a rough structure with small cracks and unfilled pores. The dense microstructure benefits the reduction in crack propagation and water absorption, leading to high compressive and bond strengths.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51708041, 51378071), a General Financial Grant from the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No. 2016M602739), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 300102218102).
References
Alanazi, H., M. Yang, D. Zhang, and Z. Gao. 2016. “Bond strength of PCC pavement repairs using metakaolin-based geopolymer mortar.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 65 (Jan): 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2015.10.009.
Al-Majidi, M. H., A. Lampropoulos, A. Cundy, and S. Meikle. 2016. “Development of geopolymer mortar under ambient temperature for in situ applications.” Constr. Build. Mater. 120 (Sep): 198–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.05.085.
Anderson, T. L. 1991. Fracture mechanics: Fundamentals and applications. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Ariffin, M. A. M., M. A. R. Bhutta, M. W. Hussin, M. Mohd Tahir, and N. Aziah. 2013. “Sulfuric acid resistance of blended ash geopolymer concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 43 (Jun): 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.01.018.
ASTM. 2018. Standard test methods for time of setting of hydraulic cement by Vicat Needle. ASTM C191. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bakharev, T. 2005a. “Geopolymeric materials prepared using Class F fly ash and elevated temperature curing.” Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (6): 1224–1232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.06.031.
Bakharev, T. 2005b. “Resistance of geopolymer materials to acid attack.” Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (4): 658–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.06.005.
Chindaprasirt, P., P. D. Silva, and S. Hanjitsuwan. 2012. “Effect of SiO and AlO on the setting and hardening of high calcium fly ash-based geopolymer systems.” J. Mater. Sci. 47 (12): 4876–4883. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-012-6353-y.
Davidovits, J. 1994. “High-alkali cements for 21st century concrete.” In Proc., V. Mohan Malhortra Symp. on Concrete Technology, Past, Present and Future, edited by P. K. Mehta, 383–397. Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
Ding, Y.-C., T.-W. Cheng, and Y.-S. Dai. 2017. “Application of geopolymer paste for concrete repair.” Struct. Concr. 18 (4): 561–570. https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.201600161.
Duan, P., C. Yan, and W. Luo. 2016. “A novel waterproof, fast setting and high early strength repair material derived from metakaolin geopolymer.” Constr. Build. Mater. 124 (Oct): 69–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.058.
Duxson, P., A. Fernández-Jiménez, J. L. Provis, G. C. Lukey, A. Palomo, and J. S. J. Deventer. 2007. “Geopolymer technology: The current state of the art.” J. Mater. Sci. 42 (9): 2917–2933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0637-z.
Garcia-Lodeiro, I., A. Fernandez-Jimenez, and A. Palomo. 2013. “Hydration kinetics in hybrid binders: Early reaction stages.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 39 (5): 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.03.025.
Garcia-Lodeiro, I., O. Maltseva, A. Palomo, and A. Fernandez-Jimenez. 2012. “Hybrid alkaline cements. Part I: Fundamentals.” Rom. J. Mater. 42 (4): 330–335.
Hardjito, D., and B. V. Rangan. 2005. Development and properties of low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. Perth, Australia: Curtin Univ. of Technology.
Hardjito, D., S. E. Wallah, D. M. J. Sumajouw, and B. V. Rangan. 2005. “Introducing fly ash-based geopolymer concrete: Manufacture and engineering properties.” In Proc., Our World in Concrete and Structures International Conf. Singapore: Singapore Concrete Institute.
Hillerborg, A., M. Modéer, and P. E. Petersson. 1976. “Analysis of crack formation and crack growth in concrete by means of fracture mechanics and finite elements.” Cem. Concr. Res. 6 (6): 773–781. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(76)90007-7.
Huntzinger, D. N., and T. D. Eatmon. 2009. “A life-cycle assessment of portland cement manufacturing: Comparing the traditional process with alternative technologies.” J. Cleaner Prod. 17 (7): 668–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.04.007.
Huseien, G. F., J. Mirza, M. Ismail, S. K. Ghoshal, and A. Abdulameer Hussein. 2017. “Geopolymer mortars as sustainable repair material: A comprehensive review.” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 80 (Dec): 54–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.076.
Huseien, G. F., J. Mirza, M. Ismail, S. K. Ghoshal, and M. A. M. Ariffin. 2018. “Effect of metakaolin replaced granulated blast furnace slag on fresh and early strength properties of geopolymer mortar.” Ain Shams Eng. J. 9 (4): 1557–1566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2016.11.011.
Juenger, M. C. G., F. Winnefeld, J. L. Provis, and J. H. Ideker. 2011. “Advances in alternative cementitious binders.” Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (12): 1232–1243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2010.11.012.
Li, C., H. Sun, and L. Li. 2010. “A review: The comparison between alkali-activated slag () and metakaolin () cements.” Cem. Concr. Res. 40 (9): 1341–1349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2010.03.020.
McLellan, B. C., R. P. Williams, J. Lay, A. van Riessen, and G. D. Corder. 2011. “Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in comparison to ordinary portland cement.” J. Cleaner Prod. 19 (9): 1080–1090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.02.010.
Morgan, D. R. 1996. “Compatibility of concrete repair materials and systems.” Constr. Build. Mater. 10 (1): 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/0950-0618(95)00060-7.
Nath, P., and P. K. Sarker. 2015. “Use of OPC to improve setting and early strength properties of low calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete cured at room temperature.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 55 (Jan): 205–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.08.008.
Ng, C., U. J. Alengaram, L. S. Wong, K. H. Mo, M. Z. Jumaat, and S. Ramesh. 2018. “A review on microstructural study and compressive strength of geopolymer mortar, paste and concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 186 (Oct): 550–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.075.
Pangdaeng, S., T. Phoo-ngernkham, V. Sata, and P. Chindaprasirt. 2014. “Influence of curing conditions on properties of high calcium fly ash geopolymer containing portland cement as additive.” Mater. Des. 53 (Jan): 269–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.07.018.
Phoo-ngernkham, T., V. Sata, S. Hanjitsuwan, C. Ridtirud, S. Hatanaka, and P. Chindaprasirt. 2015. “High calcium fly ash geopolymer mortar containing portland cement for use as repair material.” Constr. Build. Mater. 98 (Nov): 482–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.139.
Provis, J. L., and S. A. Bernal. 2014. “Geopolymers and related alkali-activated materials.” Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 44 (1): 299–327. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-matsci-070813-113515.
Rovnaník, P. 2010. “Effect of curing temperature on the development of hard structure of metakaolin-based geopolymer.” Constr. Build. Mater. 24 (7): 1176–1183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.12.023.
Shi, C., A. F. Jiménez, and A. Palomo. 2011. “New cements for the 21st century: The pursuit of an alternative to Portland cement.” Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (7): 750–763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.03.016.
Sprinkel, M. M., and C. Ozyildirim. 2000. Evaluation of high performance concrete overlays placed on route 60 over Lynnhaven Inlet in Virginia. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
Ueng, T.-H., S.-J. Lyu, H.-W. Chu, H.-H. Lee, and T.-T. Wang. 2012. “Adhesion at interface of geopolymer and cement mortar under compression: An experimental study.” Constr. Build. Mater. 35 (Oct): 204–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.03.008.
USDOT. 2005. Highway and rail transit tunnel maintenance and rehabilitation manual: 2005 edition. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
USDOT. 2009. Technical manual for design and construction of road tunnels: Civil elements. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
Xie, J., and O. Kayali. 2014. “Effect of initial water content and curing moisture conditions on the development of fly ash-based geopolymers in heat and ambient temperature.” Constr. Build. Mater. 67 (Part A): 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.10.047.
Yip, C. K., G. C. Lukey, and J. S. J. van Deventer. 2005. “The coexistence of geopolymeric gel and calcium silicate hydrate at the early stage of alkaline activation.” Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (9): 1688–1697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.10.042.
Zanotti, C., P. H. R. Borges, A. Bhutta, and N. Banthia. 2017. “Bond strength between concrete substrate and metakaolin geopolymer repair mortar: Effect of curing regime and PVA fiber reinforcement.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 80 (Jul): 307–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.12.014.
Zhang, Z., X. Yao, and H. Zhu. 2010a. “Potential application of geopolymers as protection coatings for marine concrete. Part I. Basic properties.” Appl. Clay Sci. 50 (1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2010.06.019.
Zhang, Z., X. Yao, and H. Zhu. 2010b. “Potential application of geopolymers as protection coatings for marine concrete. Part II: Microstructure and anticorrosion mechanism.” Appl. Clay Sci. 49 (1): 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2010.04.024.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
©2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Oct 31, 2018
Accepted: Apr 9, 2019
Published online: Jul 24, 2019
Published in print: Oct 1, 2019
Discussion open until: Dec 24, 2019
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.