Application of Alkali-Activated Agro-Waste Reinforced with Wollastonite Fibers in Soil Stabilization
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 29, Issue 2
Abstract
This study addresses the feasibility of using palm oil fuel ash (POFA) as a precursor in alkali activation reactions, as well as mineral wollastonite microfibers as discrete reinforcement. The experimental program focused on two main mechanical properties, i.e., the shear strength (using unconfined compression tests) and the tensile strength (indirect tensile tests and flexural tests). Results indicated that the inclusion of fiber reinforcement in alkali-activated mixtures, regardless of their particular activator-precursor combinations, increased the peak stress and improved the postpeak behavior, namely by modifying the original brittle response into a more ductile one. According to the microstructural analysis, the interaction between the fiber surface and the geopolymeric matrix is the main factor contributing to the enhanced behavior of the reinforced mixtures.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely thank the University Putra Malaysia and Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation (MOSTI) for financial supporting this research (Escience fund, Vot: 03-01-04-SF2011, static and dynamic behavior of stabilized clay soil using oil palm dirty gold). The first author expresses his sincere gratitude to Mr. Lee Wodings for his advice.
References
ASTM. (1975). “Tensile strength and Young’s modulus for high-modulus single-filament materials.” ASTM D3379, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. (2010). “Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (unified soil classification system).” ASTM D2487, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. (2012). “Standard test method for flexural strength of soil cement using simple beam with three point loading.” ASTM D1635, West Conshohocken, PA.
Botero, E., Ossa, A., Sherwell, G., and Ovando-Shelley, E. (2015). “Stress-strain behavior of a silty soil reinforced with polyethylene terephthalate (PET).” Geotext. Geomembr., 43(4), 363–369.
British Standards Institution. (1990). “Methods of test for soils and civil engineering purposes.” BS1377, London.
Cai, Y., Shi, B., Gao, W., Chen, F. J., and Tang, C. S. (2006a). “Experimental study on engineering properties of fibre-lime treated soils.” Chin. J. Geotech. Eng., 28(10), 1283–1287.
Cai, Y., Shi, B., Ng, C. W., and Tang, C. S. (2006b). “Effect of polypropylene fibre and lime admixture on engineering properties of clayey soil.” Eng. Geol., 87(3), 230–240.
Chauhan, M. S., Mittal, S., and Mohanty, B. (2008). “Performance evaluation of silty sand subgrade reinforced with fly ash and fibre.” Geotext. Geomembr., 26(5), 429–435.
Consoli, N., Corte, M. B., and Festugato, L. (2012). “Key parameter for tensile and compressive strength of fibre-reinforced soil-lime mixtures.” Geosynthetics Int., 19(5), 409–414.
Consoli, N. C., de Moraes, R. R., and Festugato, L. (2013). “Variables controlling strength of fibre-reinforced cemented soils.” Proc. ICE-Ground Improv., 166(4), 221–232.
Correia, A. A., Oliveira, P. J. V., and Custódio, D. G. (2015). “Effect of polypropylene fibres on the compressive and tensile strength of a soft soil, artificially stabilised with binders.” Geotext. Geomembr., 43(2), 97–106.
Cristelo, N., Cunha, V. M., Dias, M., Gomes, A. T., Miranda, T., and Araújo, N. (2015a). “Influence of discrete fibre reinforcement on the uniaxial compression response and seismic wave velocity of a cement-stabilised sandy-clay.” Geotext. Geomembr., 43(1), 1–13.
Cristelo, N., Glendinning, S., Fernandes, L., and Pinto, A. T. (2012a). “Effect of calcium content on soil stabilisation with alkaline activation.” Constr. Build. Mater., 29, 167–174.
Cristelo, N., Glendinning, S., Fernandes, L., and Pinto, A. T. (2013). “Effects of alkaline-activated fly ash and Portland cement on soft soil stabilisation.” Acta Geotech., 8(4), 395–405.
Cristelo, N., Glendinning, S., Miranda, T., Oliveira, D., and Silva, R. (2012b). “Soil stabilisation using alkaline activation of fly ash for self compacting rammed earth construction.” Constr. Build. Mater., 36, 727–735.
Cristelo, N., Glendinning, S., and Pinto, A. T. (2011). “Deep soft soil improvement by alkaline activation.” Proc. ICE-Ground Improv., 164(2), 73–82.
Cristelo, N., Miranda, T., Oliveira, D. V., Rosa, I., Soares, E., Coelho, P., and Fernandes, L. (2015b). “Assessing the production of jet mix columns using alkali activated waste based on mechanical and financial performance and CO2 (eq) emissions.” J. Clean. Prod., 102, 447–460.
Davidovits, J. (1988). “Geopolymer chemistry and properties.” Proc., 1st European Conf. on Soft Mineralurgy (Geopolymere ‘88), J. Davidovits and E. J. Orlinsl, eds., The Geopolymer Institute, Compiegne, France, 25–48.
Davidovits, J. (1991). “Geopolymers.” J. Therm. Anal. Calorim., 37(8), 1633–1656.
De Aza, P., Guitian, F., and De Aza, S. (1994). “Bioactivity of wollastonite ceramics: In vitro evaluation.” Scripta metallurgica et materialia, 31(8), 1001–1005.
Dexter, A., and Kroesbergen, B. (1985). “Methodology for determination of tensile strength of soil aggregates.” J. Agric. Eng. Res., 31(2), 139–147.
Dey, V., Kachala, R., Bonakdar, A., and Mobasher, B. (2015). “Mechanical properties of micro and sub-micron wollastonite fibers in cementitious composites.” Constr. Build. Mater., 82, 351–359.
Duxson, P., Provis, J. L., Lukey, G. C., and Van Deventer, J. S. (2007). “The role of inorganic polymer technology in the development of ‘green concrete’.” Cem. Concr. Res., 37(12), 1590–1597.
Estabragh, A., Namdar, P., and Javadi, A. (2012). “Behavior of cement-stabilized clay reinforced with nylon fiber.” Geosynthetics Int., 19(1), 85–92.
Fatahi, B., Khabbaz, H., and Fatahi, B. (2012). “Mechanical characteristics of soft clay treated with fibre and cement.” Geosynthetics Int., 19(3), 252–262.
Habert, G., D’Espinose de Lacaillerie, J., and Roussel, N. (2011). “An environmental evaluation of geopolymer based concrete production: Reviewing current research trends.” J. Cleaner Prod., 19(11), 1229–1238.
Hardjito, D., Wallah, S. E., Sumajouw, D. M., and Rangan, B. V. (2004). “On the development of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete.” ACI Mater. J., 101(6), 467–472.
Hoover, J., Moeller, D., Pitt, J., Smith, S., and Wainaina, N. (1982). “Performance of randomly oriented fiber reinforced roadway soils.”, Dept. of Transportation, Highway Division, Lowa State Univ., Ames, IA.
Horpibulsuk, S., Suksiripattanapong, C., Samingthong, W., Rachan, R., and Arulrajah, A. (2015). “Durability against wetting–drying cycles of water treatment sludge–fly ash geopolymer and water treatment sludge–cement and silty clay–cement systems.” J. Mater. Civil Eng., 04015078.
Johari, M., Zeyad, A., Muhamad Bunnori, N., and Ariffin, K. (2012). “Engineering and transport properties of high-strength green concrete containing high volume of ultrafine palm oil fuel ash.” Constr. Build. Mater., 30, 281–288.
Kalla, P., Misra, A., Gupta, R. C., Csetenyi, L., Gahlot, V., and Arora, A. (2013). “Mechanical and durability studies on concrete containing wollastonite-fly ash combination.” Constr. Build. Mater., 40, 1142–1150.
Kaniraj, S. R., and Havanagi, V. G. (2001). “Behavior of cement-stabilized fiber-reinforced fly ash-soil mixtures.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 574–584.
Komnitsas, K. A. (2011). “Potential of geopolymer technology towards green buildings and sustainable cities.” Proc. Eng., 21, 1023–1032.
Lecomte, I., Henrist, C., Liegeois, M., Maseri, F., Rulmont, A., and Cloots, R. (2006). “(Micro)-structural comparison between geopolymers, alkali-activated slag cement and portland cement.” J. Eur. Ceram. Soc., 26(16), 3789–3797.
Liu, Z., Cai, C., Liu, F., and Fan, F. (2016). “Feasibility study of loess stabilization with fly ash-based geopolymer.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 04016003.
Low, N. M., and Beaudoin, J. (1994a). “Stability of portland cement-based binders reinforced with natural wollastonite micro-fibres.” Cem. Concr. Res., 24(5), 874–884.
Low, N. M., and Beaudoin, J. J. (1993). “The effect of wollastonite micro-fibre aspect ratio on reinforcement of portland cement-based binders.” Cem. Concr. Res., 23(6), 1467–1479.
Low, N. M., and Beaudoin, J. J. (1994e). “The flexural toughness and ductility of portland cement-based binders reinforced with wollastonite micro-fibres.” Cem. Concr. Res., 24(2), 250–258.
Maher, M., and Ho, Y. (1994). “Mechanical properties of kaolinite/fiber soil composite.” J. Geotech. Eng., 1381–1393.
Maliakal, T., and Thiyyakkandi, S. (2013). “Influence of randomly distributed coir fibers on shear strength of clay.” Geotech. Geol. Eng., 31(2), 425–433.
McLellan, B. C., Williams, R. P., Lay, J., Van Riessen, A., and Corder, G. D. (2011). “Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in comparison to ordinary portland cement.” J. Cleaner Prod., 19(9), 1080–1090.
Mijarsh, M., Johari, M., and Ahmad, Z. (2014). “Synthesis of geopolymer from large amounts of treated palm oil fuel ash: Application of the Taguchi method in investigating the main parameters affecting compressive strength.” Constr. Build. Mater., 52, 473–481.
Phair, J., and Van Deventer, J. (2001). “Effect of silicate activator pH on the leaching and material characteristics of waste-based inorganic polymers.” Minerals Eng., 14(3), 289–304.
Phair, J., and Van Deventer, J. (2002). “Effect of the silicate activator pH on the microstructural characteristics of waste-based geopolymers.” Int. J. Mineral Process., 66(1), 121–143.
Pourakbar, S., Asadi, A., Huat, B. B., and Fasihnikoutalab, M. H. (2015a). “Soil stabilization with alkali-activated agro-waste.” Environ. Geotech., 2(6), 359–370.
Pourakbar, S., Asadi, A., Huat, B. B., and Fasihnikoutalab, M. H. (2015b). “Stabilization of clayey soil using ultrafine palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and cement.” Transp. Geotech., 3, 24–35.
Sagoe-Crentsil, K., Weng, L., and (2007). “Dissolution processes, hydrolysis and condensation reactions during geopolymer synthesis: Part II. High Si/Al ratio systems.” J. Mater. Sci., 42(9), 3007–3014.
Saltevskaya, L., Livson, Z., and Ryshchenko, M. (1974). “Synthesis of wollastonite and its use in ceramic bodies.” Glass Ceram., 31(2), 114–117.
Sargent, P., Hughes, P. N., Rouainia, M., and White, M. L. (2013). “The use of alkali activated waste binders in enhancing the mechanical properties and durability of soft alluvial soils.” Eng. Geol., 152(1), 96–108.
Silva, F., and Thaumaturgo, C. (2003). “Fibre reinforcement and fracture response in geopolymeric mortars.” Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct., 26(2), 167–172.
Sivakumar Babu, G., and Vasudevan, A. (2008). “Strength and stiffness response of coir fiber-reinforced tropical soil.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 571–577.
Sreekanth Chakradhar, R., Nagabhushana, B., Chandrappa, G., Ramesh, K., and Rao, J. (2006). “Solution combustion derived nanocrystalline macroporous wollastonite ceramics.” Mater. Chem. Phys., 95(1), 169–175.
Sukontasukkul, P., and Jamsawang, P. (2012). “Use of steel and polypropylene fibers to improve flexural performance of deep soil-cement column.” Constr. Build. Mater., 29, 201–205.
Tang, C., Shi, B., Gao, W., Chen, F., and Cai, Y. (2007). “Strength and mechanical behavior of short polypropylene fiber reinforced and cement stabilized clayey soil.” Geotext. Geomembr., 25(3), 194–202.
Temuujin, J., Van Riessen, A., and Williams, R. (2009). “Influence of calcium compounds on the mechanical properties of fly ash geopolymer pastes.” J. Hazard. Mater., 167(1), 82–88.
Turner, L. K., and Collins, F. G. (2013). “Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2) emissions: A comparison between geopolymer and OPC cement concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater., 43, 125–130.
Weng, L., and Sagoe-Crentsil, K. (2007). “Dissolution processes, hydrolysis and condensation reactions during geopolymer synthesis: Part I—Low Si/Al ratio systems.” J. Mater. Sci., 42(9), 2997–3006.
Winnefeld, F., Leemann, A., Lucuk, M., Svoboda, P., and Neuroth, M. (2010). “Assessment of phase formation in alkali activated low and high calcium fly ashes in building materials.” Constr. Build. Mater., 24(6), 1086–1093.
Yip, C., and Van Deventer, J. (2003). “Microanalysis of calcium silicate hydrate gel formed within a geopolymeric binder.” J. Mater. Sci., 38(18), 3851–3860.
Yip, C. K., Lukey, G., and Van Deventer, J. (2005). “The coexistence of geopolymeric gel and calcium silicate hydrate at the early stage of alkaline activation.” Cem. Concr. Res., 35(9), 1688–1697.
Yip, C. K., Lukey, G. C., Provis, J. L., and van Deventer, J. S. (2008). “Effect of calcium silicate sources on geopolymerisation.” Cem. Concr. Res., 38(4), 554–564.
Yu, Y., Yin, J., and Zhong, Z. (2006). “Shape effects in the Brazilian tensile strength test and a 3D FEM correction.” Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 43(4), 623–627.
Yunsheng, Z., Wei, S., Zongjin, L., Xiangming, Z., and Chungkong, C. (2008). “Impact properties of geopolymer based extrudates incorporated with fly ash and PVA short fiber.” Constr. Build. Mater., 22(3), 370–383.
Yusuf, M. O., Johari, M. A. M., Ahmad, Z. A., and Maslehuddin, M. (2014a). “Shrinkage and strength of alkaline activated ground steel slag/ultrafine palm fuel ash pastes and mortars.” Mater. Des., 63, 710–718.
Yusuf, M. O., Megat Johari, M. A., Ahmad, Z. A., and Maslehuddin, M. (2014b). “Evolution of alkaline activated ground blast furnace slag-ultrafine palm oil fuel ash based concrete.” Mater. Des., 55, 387–393.
Zhang, M., Guo, H., El-Korchi, T., Zhang, G., and Tao, M. (2013). “Experimental feasibility study of geopolymer as the next-generation soil stabilizer.” Constr. Build. Mater., 47, 1468–1478.
Zhang, M., Zhao, M., Zhang, G., Nowak, P., Coen, A., and Tao, M. (2015). “Calcium-free geopolymer as a stabilizer for sulfate-rich soils.” Appl. Clay Sci., 108, 199–207.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 29 • Issue 2 • February 2017
Copyright
© 2016 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Nov 10, 2015
Accepted: Jun 28, 2016
Published online: Aug 29, 2016
Discussion open until: Jan 29, 2017
Published in print: Feb 1, 2017
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.