System Response of an Interlayered Deposit with Spatially Distributed Ground Deformations in the Chi-Chi Earthquake
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148, Issue 10
Abstract
Lateral spreading of an interlayered deposit adjacent to a meandering stream channel in Wufeng, Taiwan, during the 1999 Chi-Chi Earthquake is evaluated using two-dimensional (2D) nonlinear dynamic analyses (NDAs) with geostatistical modeling of the subsurface to assess their ability to approximate the observed magnitude and spatial extent of ground deformations, as well as identify the key factors and mechanisms that most contributed to the overall system response. In-situ data from borings and cone penetration tests (CPTs) depict thinly stratified overbank deposits of low-plasticity silty sands, silts, and clays, interlayered with laterally discontinuous channel-deposited sands. The three-dimensional (3D) subsurface is simulated using transition probability-based indicator geostatistics, conditioned on available CPT data and geological inferences. The NDAs are performed using the PM4Sand and PM4Silt constitutive models, within the FLAC finite difference program. Sensitivity analyses are performed to understand the influence of uncertainties in the stratigraphy, channel conditions, soil properties, input ground motions, constitutive model calibration protocols, and numerical boundary conditions, as well as the performance of alternate channel transects. Most analysis cases generally matched the maximum displacements observed near the channel but overestimated the extent of displacements away from the channel. The most favorable results were largely influenced by nonstationary stratigraphic trends and cyclic softening of fine-grained soils, in addition to the liquefaction of coarse-grained soils. This case history demonstrates the capabilities and limitations of current subsurface and NDA modeling procedures for predicting ground deformation patterns.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some of the data, models, or code used during the study were provided by third parties. The site characterization data was sourced from the Taiwan Ground Failure Database hosted by the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER 2002). Ground motions were obtained from the PEER NGA-West2 Ground-Motion Database (PEER 2013). Direct requests for software can be made to the providers indicated in the references. Some of the codes that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The authors appreciate the financial support of the National Science Foundation (Award CMMI-1635398) and the California Department of Water Resources (Contract 4600009751) for different aspects of the work presented herein. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of these organizations. The analyses benefited from discussions with Graham Fogg for the transition probability simulations, Katerina Ziotopoulou for the postliquefaction model calibrations, and Renmin Pretell and Francisco Humire for peer feedback. The data procurement and initial analyses of this case study are attributed to early efforts by Daniel Chu, Jonathan Stewart, Leslie Youd, Bin-Lin Chu, Shannon Lee, Sung-Chi Hsu, and others. The authors are grateful for their support and interactions.
References
Abrahamson, N. A., W. J. Silva, and R. Kamai. 2014. “Summary of the ASK14 ground motion relation for active crustal regions.” Earthquake Spectra 30 (3): 1025–1055. https://doi.org/10.1193/070913EQS198M.
Andrus, R. D., P. Piratheepan, B. S. Ellis, J. Zhang, and C. H. Juang. 2004. “Comparing liquefaction evaluation methods using penetration-VS relationships.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 24 (9–10): 713–721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2004.06.001.
Bartlett, S. F., and T. L. Youd. 1995. “Empirical prediction of liquefaction-induced lateral spread.” J. Geotech. Eng. 121 (4): 316–329. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:4(316).
Bassal, P. C., and R. W. Boulanger. 2021. “System response of an interlayered deposit with spatially preferential liquefaction manifestations.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 147 (12). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002684.
Bassal, P. C., R. W. Boulanger, and J. T. DeJong. 2021a. “Dynamic analyses of liquefaction and lateral spreading for an interlayered deposit in the Chi-Chi earthquake.” In Proc., ASCE Geo-Extreme 2021 Conf. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Bassal, P. C., R. W. Boulanger, J. T. DeJong, and K. Ziotopoulou. 2021b. “Calibration of post-liquefaction shear deformation for a fluvial deposit in the Chi-Chi earthquake.” In Proc., 17th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Tokyo: International Association for Earthquake Engineering.
Boore, D. M., J. P. Stewart, E. Seyhan, and G. A. Atkinson. 2014. “NGA-West2 equations for predicting PGA, PGV, and 5% damped PSA for shallow crustal earthquakes.” Earthquake Spectra 30 (3): 1057–1085. https://doi.org/10.1193/070113EQS184M.
Boulanger, R. W., and J. T. DeJong. 2018. “Inverse filtering procedure to correct cone penetration data for thin-layer and transition effects.” In Proc., Cone Penetration Testing 2018, edited by M. A. Hicks, F. Pisanò, and J. Peuchen, 25–44. Delft, Netherlands: Delft Univ. of Technology.
Boulanger, R. W., and I. M. Idriss. 2014. CPT and SPT based liquefaction triggering procedures. Davis, CA: Univ. of California.
Boulanger, R. W., D. M. Moug, S. K. Munter, A. B. Price, and J. T. DeJong. 2016. “Evaluating liquefaction in interbedded sand, silt, and clay deposits using the cone penetrometer.” In Proc., 5th Int. Conf. on Geotechnical & Geophysical Site Characterization. Queensland, Australia: Australian Geomechanics Society.
Boulanger, R. W., S. K. Munter, C. P. Krage, and J. T. DeJong. 2019. “Liquefaction evaluation of interbedded soil deposit: Çark Canal in 1999 M7.5 Kocaeli Earthquake.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 145 (9): 05019007. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002089.
Boulanger, R. W., and K. Ziotopoulou. 2017. PM4Sand (Version 3.1): A sand plasticity model for earthquake engineering applications. Davis, CA: Univ. of California, Davis.
Boulanger, R. W., and K. Ziotopoulou. 2018. PM4Silt (Version 1): A silt plasticity model for earthquake engineering applications. Davis, CA: Univ. of California, Davis.
Campbell, K. W., and Y. Bozorgnia. 2014. “NGA-West2 ground motion model for the average horizontal components of PGA, PGV, and 5% damped linear acceleration response spectra.” Earthquake Spectra 30 (3): 1087–1115. https://doi.org/10.1193/062913EQS175M.
Carle, S. F. 1999. TPROGS: Transition probability geostatistical software: Users guide. Davis, CA: Univ. of California, Davis.
Carle, S. F., and G. E. Fogg. 1996. “Transition probability-based indicator geostatistics.” Math. Geol. 28 (4): 453–476. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02083656.
Carlton, B. D., and J. M. Pestana. 2012. “Small strain shear modulus of high and low plasticity clays and silts.” In Proc., 15th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Tokyo: International Association for Earthquake Engineering.
Chang, S. S. L. 1971. “Subsurface geologic study of the Taichung basin, Taiwan.” Pet. Geol. Taiwan 8: 21–45.
Chiou, B. S. J., and R. R. Youngs. 2014. “Update of the Chiou and Youngs NGA model for the average horizontal component of peak ground motion and response spectra.” Earthquake Spectra 30 (3): 1117–1153. https://doi.org/10.1193/072813EQS219M.
Chu, B. L., S. C. Hsu, and Y. Chang. 2004a. “Ground behavior and liquefaction analyses in central Taiwan-Wufeng.” Eng. Geol. 71 (1–2): 119–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(03)00129-7.
Chu, D. B., et al. 2004b. “Documentation of soil conditions at liquefaction and non-liquefaction sites from 1999 Chi-Chi (Taiwan) earthquake.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 24 (9–10): 647–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2004.06.005.
Chu, D. B. 2006. “Case studies of soil liquefaction of sands and cyclic softening of clays induced by the 1999 Taiwan Chi-Chi earthquake.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California, Los Angeles.
Chu, D. B., J. P. Stewart, T. L. Youd, and B. L. Chu. 2006. “Liquefaction-induced lateral spreading in near-fault regions during the 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan Earthquake.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (12): 1549–1565. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:12(1549).
Cubrinovski, M., A. Rhodes, N. Ntritsos, and S. van Ballegooy. 2018. “System response of liquefiable deposits.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 124 (Sep): 212–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.05.013.
Darendeli, M. B. 2001. “Development of a new family of normalized modulus reduction and material damping curves.” Ph. D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Austin.
Deutsch, C. V., and A. J. Journel. 1992. Geostatistical software library and user’s guide. New York: Oxford University Press.
Faris, A. T., R. B. Seed, R. E. Kayen, and J. Wu. 2006. “A semi-empirical model for the estimation of maximum horizontal displacement due to liquefaction-induced lateral spreading.” In Proc., 8th US National Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Oakland, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute.
Finn, W. D. L., K. W. Lee, and G. R. Martin. 1977. “An effective stress model for liquefaction.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 103 (6): 517–533. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000434.
Griffiths, D. V., and R. M. Marquez. 2007. “Three-dimensional slope stability analysis by elasto-plastic finite elements.” Géotechnique 57 (6): 537–546. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2007.57.6.537.
Holzer, T. L., and M. J. Bennett. 2007. “Geologic and hydrogeologic controls of boundaries of lateral spreads: Lessons from USGS liquefaction case histories.” In Proc., 1st North American Landslide Conf., edited by V. Schaefer, R. Schuster, and A. Turner, 502–522. Zanesville, OH: Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists.
Holzer, T. L., M. J. Bennett, D. J. Ponti, and J. C. Tinsley III. 1999. “Liquefaction and soil failure during 1994 Northridge earthquake.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 125 (6): 438–452. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1999)125:6(438).
Hsu, S. C., B. L. Chu, and C. C. Lin. 2008. “Analyses of ground movements caused by lateral spread during an earthquake.” In Proc., 10th Int. Symp. Landslides and Engineered Slopes. London: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
Itasca. 2019. FLAC, Fast Lagrangian analysis of continua, user’s guide, version 8.1. Minneapolis: Itasca Consulting Group.
Kuo, C. H., K. L. Wen, H. H. Hsieh, C. M. Lin, T. M. Chang, and K. W. Kuo. 2012. “Site Classification and Vs30 estimation of free-field TSMIP stations using the logging data of EGDT.” Eng. Geol. 129–130 (Mar): 68–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.01.013.
Kwok, L. A., J. P. Stewart, D. Y. Kwak, and P. L. Sun. 2018. “Taiwan-specific model for VS30 prediction considering between-proxy correlations.” Earthquake Spectra 34 (4): 1973–1993. https://doi.org/10.1193/061217EQS113M.
Li, Y., G. A. Fenton, M. A. Hicks, and N. Xu. 2021. “Probabilistic bearing capacity prediction of square footings on 3D spatially varying cohesive soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 147 (6): 04021035. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002538.
Lin, C. W., R. Y. Shih, Y. H. Lin, and W. S. Chen. 2002. “Structural characteristics of the Chelungpu fault zone in the Taichung area, Central Taiwan.” West. Pac. Earth Sci. 2 (4): 411–426.
Lunne, T., P. K. Robertson, and J. J. M. Powell. 1997. Cone penetration testing in geotechnical practice. New York: Blackie Academic, EF Spon/Routledge.
Mayne, P. W., and J. Peuchen. 2018. “Evaluation of CPTU Nkt cone factor for undrained strength of clays.” In Proc., 4th Int. Symp. on Cone Penetration Testing. London: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
Montgomery, J., and R. W. Boulanger. 2016. “Effects of spatial variability on liquefaction-induced settlement and lateral spreading.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 143 (1): 04016086. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001584.
Nichols, G. 2009. Sedimentology and stratigraphy. 2nd ed. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, Wiley.
PEER (Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center). 2002. “Taiwan ground failure database.” Accessed January 5, 2020. https://apps.peer.berkeley.edu/.
PEER (Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center). 2013. “PEER ground motion database: NGA-West2.” Accessed January 6, 2020. https://ngawest2.berkeley.edu/.
Pretell, R. A., K. Ziotopoulou, and C. Davis. 2021. “Numerical modeling of ground deformations at Balboa Blvd. in the Northridge 1994 Earthquake.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 129 (4): 315–322. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002417.
Price, A. B., R. W. Boulanger, J. T. DeJong, A. M. Parra Bastidas, and D. Moug. 2015. “Cyclic strengths and simulated CPT penetration resistances in intermediate soils.” In Proc., 6th Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering. London: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
Robertson, P. K. 2010. “Estimating in-situ soil permeability from CPT & CPTu.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Symp. on Cone Penetration Testing. London: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
Robertson, P. K., and C. E. Wride. 1998. “Evaluating cyclic liquefaction potential using the cone penetration test.” Can. Geotech. J. 35 (3): 442–459. https://doi.org/10.1139/t98-017.
Robinson, K., M. Cubrinovski, P. Kailey, and R. Orense. 2011. “Field measurements of lateral spreading following the 2010 Darfield earthquake.” In Proc., 9th Pacific Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Melbourne, Australia: Australian Earthquake Engineering Society.
Stewart, J. P. 2001. “Chapter 4: Soil liquefaction. Chi-Chi, Taiwan Earthquake of September 21, 1999 reconnaissance report.” Supplement, Earthquake Spectra 17 (S1): 37–60. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.1586192.
Tasiopoulou, P., K. Ziotopoulou, F. Humire, A. Giannakou, J. Chacko, and T. Travasarou. 2020. “Development and implementation of semiempirical framework for modeling postliquefaction shear deformation accumulation in sands.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 146 (1): 04019120. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002179.
Yang, Y., and E. Kavazanjian. 2021. “Numerical evaluation of liquefaction-induced lateral spreading with an advanced plasticity model for liquefiable sand.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 149 (2021): 106871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2021.106871.
Youd, T. L., C. M. Hansen, and S. F. Bartlett. 2002. “Revised multilinear regression equations for prediction of lateral spread displacement.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 128 (12): 1007–1017. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2002)128:12(1007).
Zhang, G., P. K. Robertson, and R. W. Brachman. 2004. “Estimating liquefaction induced lateral displacements using the standard penetration test or cone penetration test.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130 (8): 861–871. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:8(861).
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148 • Issue 10 • October 2022
Copyright
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Dec 19, 2021
Accepted: May 12, 2022
Published online: Aug 11, 2022
Published in print: Oct 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Jan 11, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Mohammad Khosravi, Shahabeddin Zaregarizi, Liquefaction Potential and Sediment Ejecta Manifestation of Thinly Interbedded Sands and Fine-Grained Soils: Palinurus Road Site in Christchurch Subjected to 2010–2011 Canterbury Earthquake Sequence, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 10.1061/JGGEFK.GTENG-11616, 150, 5, (2024).
- Katherine Cheng, Pablo Busch, Katerina Ziotopoulou, Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction Manifestation Multiclass Prediction Utilizing Random Forests for the Canterbury Earthquake Sequence, Geo-Congress 2024, 10.1061/9780784485316.024, (222-231), (2024).
- Patrick C. Bassal, Ross W. Boulanger, System response of an interlayered deposit with a localized graben deformation in the Northridge earthquake, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 10.1016/j.soildyn.2022.107668, 165, (107668), (2023).