Impact of Ground Densification on the Response of Urban Liquefiable Sites and Structures
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148, Issue 1
Abstract
Ground densification is a common countermeasure against soil liquefaction. The state-of-practice for designing ground densification is typically based on empirical estimates of liquefaction triggering and ground settlement in the free field, ignoring seismic soil-structure interaction (SSI) near building structures. The existing guidelines for the geometry of ground densification also do not take into account constraints introduced by the presence of a neighboring foundation, or the impact of densification on seismic structure-soil-structure interaction (SSSI) and performance of adjacent buildings in urban settings. In this paper, three-dimensional (3D), fully-coupled, nonlinear finite-element analyses, validated with centrifuge experimental results, are used to evaluate the influence of ground densification on the seismic performance of isolated and adjacent, similar and dissimilar, inelastic structures on liquefiable soils. The response is evaluated for treatment of varying dimensions (depth and width ), location (e.g., below one or both neighboring buildings), and symmetry configurations. Ground densification is shown to effectively reduce the permanent settlement of isolated structures when covering the full depth of the critical layer, while potentially amplifying column strains and structural deflections. Depending on the properties of the structure and symmetry of treatment, densification could also adversely impact a foundation’s permanent tilt. The influence of densification on SSSI is shown to depend strongly on the geometry of densification, dynamic properties of the neighboring structures, and building spacing. For the spacings (S) considered, ground densification effectively reduced the permanent settlement of two adjacent mitigated structure(s). However, the combination of SSSI and ground densification typically notably amplified asymmetrical deformations below the foundations (hence, permanent tilt) as well as column strains, particularly for an unmitigated neighbor. This effect was strongest when closely spaced and when . The results indicate that ground densification location and geometry must be designed with extreme care in urban settings, particularly when near a taller and weaker neighboring structure.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The experimental and numerical data presented in this study will be made available to the public on the NSF Cyberinfrastructure DesignSafe after publication.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge support from the US National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant No. 1454431. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF. This work utilized the Summit supercomputer, which is supported by the National Science Foundation (Awards ACI-1532235 and ACI-1532236), the University of Colorado Boulder, and Colorado State University.
References
AISC. 2010. Specification for structural steel buildings. ANSI/AISC 360-10. Chicago: AISC.
ASCE. 2010. Minimum design loads for buildings and other structures. ASCE 7-10. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Badanagki, M. 2019. “Influence of dense granular columns on the seismic performance of level and gently sloped liquefiable sites.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Univ. of Colorado Boulder.
Badanagki, M., S. Dashti, B. Paramasivam, and J. C. Tiznado. 2019. “How do granular columns affect the seismic performance of non-uniform liquefiable sites and their overlying structures?” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 125: 105715.
Biot, M. A. 1941. “General theory of three-dimensional consolidation.” J. Appl. Phys. 12 (2): 155–164. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1712886.
Dashti, S., J. D. Bray, J. M. Pestana, M. R. Riemer, and D. Wilson. 2010a. “Centrifuge testing to evaluate and mitigate liquefaction-induced building settlement mechanisms.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (7): 918–929. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000306.
Dashti, S., J. D. Bray, J. M. Pestana, M. R. Riemer, and D. Wilson. 2010b. “Mechanisms of seismically-induced settlement of buildings with shallow foundations on liquefiable soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (1): 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000179.
Elgamal, A., Z. Yang, and E. Parra. 2002. “Computational modeling of cyclic mobility and post-liquefaction site response.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 22 (4): 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0267-7261(02)00022-2.
Giuffrè, A., and P. E. Pinto. 1970. “Il comportamento del cemento armato per sollecitazioni cicliche di forte intensità.” Giornale del Genio Civile 5 (1): 391–408.
Hausler, E. A. 2002. “Influence of ground improvement on settlement and liquefaction: A study based on field case history evidence and dynamic geotechnical centrifuge tests.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Hausler, E. A., and N. Sitar. 2001. “Performance of soil improvement techniques in earthquakes.” In Proc., 4th Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamic. Attiki, Greece: Geosysta.
Hayden, C. P., J. D. Zupan, J. D. Bray, J. D. Allmond, and B. L. Kutter. 2015. “Centrifuge tests of adjacent mat-supported buildings affected by liquefaction.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 141 (3): 04014118. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001253.
Howell, R., E. M. Rathje, and R. W. Boulanger. 2015. “Evaluation of simulation models of lateral spread sites treated with prefabricated vertical drains.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 141 (1): 04014076. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001185.
Hwang, Y. W., J. Ramirez, S. Dashti, P. Kirkwood, A. B. Liel, G. Camata, and M. Petracca. 2021. “Seismic interaction of adjacent structures on liquefiable soils: Insight from centrifuge and numerical modeling.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 147 (8): 04021063. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002546.
Iai, S., Y. Matsunaga, T. Morita, M. Miyata, H. Sakurai, H. Oishi, H. Ogura, Y. Ando, Y. Tanaka, and M. Kato. 1994. “Effects of remedial measures against liquefaction at 1993 Kushiro-Oki earthquake.” In Proc., 5th US-Japan Workshop on Earthquake Resistant Design of Lifeline Facilities and Countermeasures against Soil Liquefaction, 135–152. Taipei, Taiwan: National Centre for Earthquake Engineering Research.
JGS (Japanese Geotechnical Society). 1998. Remedial measures against soil liquefaction. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Kirkwood, P., and S. Dashti. 2018a. “A centrifuge study of seismic structure-soil-structure interaction on liquefiable ground and the implications for structural performance.” Earthquake Spectra 34 (3): 1113–1134. https://doi.org/10.1193/052417EQS095M.
Kirkwood, P., and S. Dashti. 2018b. “Considerations for mitigation of earthquake-induced soil liquefaction in urban environments.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 144 (10): 04018069. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001936.
Kirkwood, P., and S. Dashti. 2019. “Influence of prefabricated vertical drains on the seismic performance of similar neighbouring structures founded on liquefiable deposits.” Geotechnique 69 (11): 971–985. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.17.P.077.
Ko, H. Y. 1988. “The Colorado centrifuge facility.” In Proc., Centrifuge 88, edited by J. F. Corte, 73–75. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Kuriki, A., S. Tamura, Y. Zhou, and K. Tokimatsu. 2012. “Centrifugal model test of liquefaction countermeasure for existing houses.” In Proc., 47th Japanese Geotechnical Society Conf., 1497–1498. Tokyo: Japanese Geotechnical Society.
Kwok, A. O. L., J. P. Stewart, Y. M. A. Hashash, N. Matasovic, R. Pyke, Z. Wang, and Z. Yang. 2007. “Use of exact solutions of wave propagation problems to guide implementation of nonlinear seismic ground response analysis procedures.” J. Geotech. Eng. 133 (11): 1385–1398. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:11(1385).
Lambe, T. W. 1973. “Predictions in soil engineering.” Geotechnique 23 (2): 149–202. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1973.23.2.151.
Lambe, W. T. 1969. Soil mechanics. New York: Wiley.
Liu, L., and R. Dobry. 1997. “Seismic response of shallow foundation on liquefiable sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 123 (6): 557–567. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1997)123:6(557).
Martin, J. R., and C. G. Olgun. 2006. “Liquefaction mitigation using jet-grout columns—1999 Kocaeli earthquake case history.” In Proc., Sessions of GeoShanghai, 349–358. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Mazzoni, S., F. McKenna, M. Scott, and G. Fenves. 2006. Open system for earthquake engineering simulation user command-language. Berkeley, CA: Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulations.
NCEER (National Centre for Earthquake Engineering Research). 1997. Proceedings of the NCEER workshop on evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils. Edited by T. L. Youd and I. M. Idriss, Technical Rep. No. NCEER-97-0022. Taipei, Taiwan: NCEER.
Olarte, J., S. Dashti, and A. Liel. 2018a. “Can ground densification improve seismic performance of the soil-foundation-structure system on liquefiable soils.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 47 (5): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.3012.
Olarte, J., S. Dashti, A. Liel, and B. Paramasivam. 2018b. “Effects of drainage control on densification as a liquefaction mitigation technique.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 110 (Jul): 212–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.03.018.
Olarte, J., B. Paramasivam, S. Dashti, A. Liel, and J. Zannin. 2017. “Centrifuge modeling of mitigation-soil-foundation-structure interaction on liquefiable ground.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 97 (Jun): 304–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.03.014.
Paramasivam, B., S. Dashti, and A. Liel. 2018. “Influence of prefabricated vertical drains on the seismic performance of structures founded on liquefiable soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenvirom. Eng. 144 (10): 04018070. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001950.
Paramasivam, B., S. Dashti, and A. Liel. 2019. “Impact of spatial variations in permeability of liquefiable deposits on the seismic performance of structures and effectiveness of drains.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 145 (8): 04019030. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002054.
PHRI (Port and Harbour Research Institute). 1997. Handbook on liquefaction remediation of reclaimed land. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Ramirez, J., A. R. Barrero, L. Chen, A. Ghofrani, S. Dashti, M. Taiebat, and P. Arduino. 2018. “Site response in a layered liquefiable deposit: Evaluation of different numerical tools and methodologies with centrifuge experimental results.” J. Geotech. Geoenvirom. Eng. 144 (10): 04018073. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001947.
Rasouli, R., T. Akima, V. Awad, S. Tan, and I. Towhata. 2015. “3-D Experiments on performance of mitigation against liquefaction-induced subsidence of surface structures.” In Vol. 2 of Proc., Int. Symp. on Earthquake Engineering. London: International Association for Earthquake Engineering.
Rayamajhi, D., S. Tamura, M. Khosravi, R. W. Boulanger, D. W. Wilson, S. A. Ashford, and C. G. Olgun. 2015. “Dynamic centrifuge tests to evaluate reinforcing mechanisms of soil-cement columns in liquefiable sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 141 (6): 04015015. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001298.
Seed, H. B., P. P. Martin, and J. Lysmer. 1975. The generation and dissipation of pore water pressures during soil liquefaction. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California.
Shahir H., A. Pak, and P. Ayoubi. 2016. “A performance-based approach for design of ground densification to mitigate liquefaction.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 90 (Nov): 381–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2016.09.014.
Shen, M., J. R. Martin, C. S. Ku, and Y. C. Lu. 2018. “A case study of the effect of dynamic compaction on liquefaction of reclaimed ground.” Eng. Geol. 240 (Jun): 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.04.003.
Stewart, D. P., Y. R. Chen, and B. L. Kutter. 1998. “Experience with the use of methylcellulose as a viscous pore fluid in centrifuge models.” Geotech. Test. J. 21 (4): 365–369. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11376J.
Takemura, J., R. Igarashi, N. Komatsumoto, and M. Okamura. 2009. “Soil desaturation by ground water lowering as a liquefaction countermeasure.” Int. J. Phys. Modell. Geotech. 562 (5): 012015. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/562/1/012015/pdf.
USACE. 1999. Guidelines on ground improvement for structures and facilities. Washington, DC: Storming Media.
Wang, G., and N. Sitar. 2004. “Numerical analysis of piles in elasto-plastic soils under axial loading.” In Proc., 17th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conf., 1–8. Newark, DE: Univ. of Delaware.
Yang, Z., J. Lu, and A. Elgamal. 2008. OpenSees soil models and solid fluid fully coupled elements: User’s manual. San Diego: Univ. of California.
Yoshimi, Y., and K. Tokimatsu. 1977. “Settlement of buildings on saturated sand during earthquakes.” Soils Found. 17 (1): 23–38. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.17.23.
Zienkiewicz, O. C., A. H. C. Chan, M. Pastor, D. K. Paul, and T. Shiomi. 1990. “Static and dynamic behaviour of soils: A rational approach to quantitative solutions. I: Fully saturated problems.” In Proc., Royal Society of London, Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 285–309. London: Royal Society Publishing.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148 • Issue 1 • January 2022
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Dec 29, 2020
Accepted: Aug 27, 2021
Published online: Oct 28, 2021
Published in print: Jan 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Mar 28, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Yu-Wei Hwang, Shideh Dashti, Seismic Interactions among Multiple Structures Founded on Liquefiable Soils in a City Block, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 10.1061/JGGEFK.GTENG-10262, 149, 9, (2023).
- Hyuk Kee HONG, Yoshikazu TANAKA, Anurag SAHARE, Kyohei UEDA, EFFECTS OF SOIL SPATIAL VARIABILITY ON DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF SHEET-PILE SUPPORTED GROUND, Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. A1 (Structural Engineering & Earthquake Engineering (SE/EE)), 10.2208/jscejseee.78.4_I_334, 78, 4, (I_334-I_343), (2022).
- Yu-Wei Hwang, Zach Bullock, Shideh Dashti, Abbie Liel, A Probabilistic Predictive Model for Foundation Settlement on Liquefiable Soils Improved with Ground Densification, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002768, 148, 5, (2022).
- Yu-Wei Hwang, Shideh Dashti, Juan Carlos Tiznado, Seismic Interactions Among Multiple Structures on Liquefiable Soils Improved with Ground Densification, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance Based Design in Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering (Beijing 2022), 10.1007/978-3-031-11898-2_89, (1111-1118), (2022).
- Shideh Dashti, Zachary Bullock, Yu-Wei Hwang, Performance-Based Assessment and Design of Structures on Liquefiable Soils: From Triggering to Consequence and Mitigation, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance Based Design in Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering (Beijing 2022), 10.1007/978-3-031-11898-2_21, (376-396), (2022).