Full-Scale Field Studies to Evaluate Deep Soil Mixing in Stabilizing Expansive Soils
This article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLYThis article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLYPublication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148, Issue 1
Abstract
An evaluation of deep soil mixing (DSM) technology in stabilizing expansive soils was conducted by designing and constructing two full-scale test sections. The test sections were instrumented and installed with different numbers of DSM columns and area ratios. Their performance was evaluated by comparing the test sections with two untreated test sections. The performance of the DSM test sections was measured by addressing the shrink and swell behaviors using vertical and lateral soil movements and the swell pressures within the treated soil mass. This paper discusses the construction of the test sections, the instrumentation details, and comprehensive analyses of the field monitored data. The untreated test sections experienced absolute vertical soil movements on the order of 35 mm or greater, whereas the treated test sections had movements in the range of 10 to 25 mm. Similar observations were recorded for the lateral soil movements and swell pressure changes in both the untreated and treated sections. Unlike the DSM-treated test sections, the untreated test sections showed repeated soil movements with field moisture content changes due to periodic dry/wet climatic conditions. Results from nondestructive testing (NDT) revealed that the overall stiffness of the DSM-treated test sections was superior to that of the untreated sections. This study showed that DSM technology is a viable option for stabilizing expansive soil formations with moderate to deeper active depths.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All relevant data and models used in the study have been provided in the form of figures and tables in the article. Additional data generated from modeling is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
This research study was conducted in cooperation with the Texas Department of Transportation and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). The authors would like to acknowledge both agencies for providing financial support. The authors would also like to thank Mr. Richard Williammee, P.E., project director (PD) and former district materials engineer of the Fort Worth TxDOT district, and many University of Texas at Arlington (UTA) graduate students for providing their assistance during the construction and monitoring of the test sections. Furthermore, the authors would like to extend their gratitude to Benjamin Anderson and Christopher Shirey for their assistance during the monitoring of the test sections and to Deren Yuan of University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) for his help with the in situ nondestructive testing.
References
Andromalos, K. B., Y. A. Hegazy, and B. H. Jasperse. 2001. “Stabilization of soft soils by soil mixing.” In Proc., Soft Ground Technology Conf. Geotechnical Special Publication 112, edited by J. L. Hanson and R. Termaat, 194–205. Reston, VA: ASCE. https://doi.org/10.1061/40552(301)16.
Bhadriraju, V., A. J. Puppala, R. S. Madhyannapu, and R. Williammee. 2008. “Laboratory procedure to obtain well-mixed soil binder samples of medium stiff to stiff expansive clayey soil for deep soil mixing simulation.” Geotech. Test. J. 31 (3): 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ100936.
Bruce, D. 2000. An introduction to the deep soil mixing methods as used in geotechnical applications. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, USDOT.
Bruce, D. 2001. An introduction to deep mixing methods as used in geotechnical applications, volume III: The verification and properties of treated ground. FHWA-RD-99-167. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, USDOT.
Cali, M., M. Woodward, D. A. Bruce, and E. Forte. 2005a. “Levee stability application for deep mixing (1): Design for full scale test section using dry mixed soil cement Columns.” In Proc., Int. Conf. on Deep Mixing: Best Practice and Recent Advances, Deep Mixing ’05. Stockholm, Sweden: Swedish Geotechnical Institute.
Cali, P. R., M. Woodward, and D. A. Bruce. 2005b. “Levee stability application for deep mixing (2): Conclusions from test section using dry mixed soil cement columns.” In Proc., Int. Conf. on Deep Mixing: Best Practice and Recent Advances, Deep Mixing ’05. Stockholm, Sweden: Swedish Geotechnical Institute.
Chen, F. H. 1988. Vol. 12 of Developments in geotechnical engineering: Foundations on expansive soils. 2nd ed. New York: Elsevier.
Fredlund, D. G., and H. Rahardjo. 1993. Soil mechanics for unsaturated soils. New York: Wiley.
Han, J. 2004. “National deep mixing workshop presentation.” In Proc., Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Han, J., and M. A. Gabr. 2002. “Numerical analysis of geosynthetic-reinforced and pile-supported earth platforms over soft soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 128 (1): 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2002)128:1(44).
Han, J., D. Leshchinsky, and Y. Shao. 2002. “Influence of tensile stiffness of geosynthetic reinforcements on performance of reinforced slopes.” In Proc., 7th ICG: Geosynthetics, 197–200. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Hewayde, E., H. El Naggar, and N. Khorshid. 2005. “Reinforced lime columns: A new technique for heave control.” Ground Improv. 9 (2): 79–87. https://doi.org/10.1680/grim.2005.9.2.79.
Houston, S. L., H. B. Dye, C. E. Zapata, K. D. Walsh, and W. N. Houston. 2011. “Study of expansive soils and residential foundations on expansive soils in Arizona.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 25 (1): 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000077.
Hudak, P. F. 1998. “Geologic controls on foundation damage in North Central Texas.” GeoJournal 45 (3): 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006965231244.
JGS (Japanese Geotechnical Society). 2000. Practice for making and curing stabilised soil specimens without compaction (translated version). JGS 0821-00. Tokyo: Geotechnical Test Procedure and Commentary, JGS.
Lawson, W. D. 2005. “Not making the grade: Expansive soils and higher education in Texas.” J. Civ. Eng. Educ. 131 (4): 248–256. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1052-3928(2005)131:4(248).
Liu, H., C. Ng, and K. Fei. 2007. “Performance of a geogrid-reinforced and pile-supported highway embankment over soft clay: Case study.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (12): 1483–1493. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:12(1483).
Madhyannapu, R. S. 2007. “Deep mixing technology for mitigation of swell-shrink behavior of expansive soils of moderate to deep active depths.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Arlington.
Madhyannapu, R. S., and A. J. Puppala. 2014. “Design and construction guidelines for deep soil mixing to stabilize expansive soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (9): 04014051. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001149.
Madhyannapu, R. S., A. J. Puppala, S. Nazarian, and D. Yuan. 2010. “Quality assessment and quality control of deep soil mixing construction for stabilizing expansive subsoils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (1): 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000188.
Nazarian, S., D. Yuan, and M. R. Baker. 1994. “Automation of spectral analysis surface waves method.” In Proc., Symp. on Dynamic Geotechnical Testing II, ASTM Special Publication, 88–100. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Nelson, J. D., and J. D. Miller. 1992. Expansive soils: Problems and practice in foundation and pavement engineering. New York: Wiley.
O’Neill, M. W., and A. M. Poormoayed. 1980. “Methodology for foundations on expansive clays.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 106 (12): 1345–1367. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0001080.
O’Rourke, T., and A. McGinn. 2006. “Lessons learned for ground movements and soil stabilization from the Boston Central Artery.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (8): 966–989. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:8(966).
Petry, T. M., and D. N. Little. 2002. “Review of stabilization of clays and expansive soils in pavements and lightly loaded structures: History, practice, and future.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 14 (6): 447–460. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2002)14:6(447).
Porbaha, A. 1998. “State-of-the-art in deep mixing technology: Part II. Applications.” Ground Improv. 2 (3): 125–139. https://doi.org/10.1680/gi.1998.020303.
Puppala, A. J., E. Wattanasanticharoen, and A. Porbaha. 2006. “Combined lime and fiber stabilization to modify expansive soils.” Chap. 24 in Expansive soils: Recent advances in characterization and treatment, edited by A. Al-Rawas and M. Goosen, 257–270. London: Taylor & Francis Group.
Puppala, A. J., T. Wejrungsikul, V. Puljan, and T. Manosuthkij. 2012. “Measurements of shrinkage induced pressure (SIP) in unsaturated expansive clays.” Geotech. Eng. J. SEAGS & AGSSEA 43 (1): 40–47.
Radevsky, R. 2001. “Expansive clay problems: How are they dealt with outside the US?” In Expansive clay soils and vegetation influences on shallow foundation, edited by C. Vipulanandan, M. B. Addison, and M. Hasen. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Rama Rao, R., H. Rahardjo, and D. G. Fredlund. 1988. “Closed-form heave solutions for expansive soils.” J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (5): 573–588. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:5(573).
Rao, S. M., and B. Venkataswamy. 2002. “Lime pile treatment of black cotton soils.” Ground Improv. 6 (2): 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1680/grim.2002.6.2.85.
Rathmayer, H. 1996. “Deep mixing methods for soft soil improvement in the Nordic Countries.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Ground Improvement Geosystems, Grouting and Deep Mixing, edited by R. Yonekura, M. Terashi, and M. Shibazaki, 869–877. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Tonoz, M. C., C. Gokceoglu, and R. Ulusay. 2003. “A laboratory-scale experimental investigation on the performance of lime columns in expansive Ankara (Turkey) clay.” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 62 (2): 91–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-002-0176-z.
Wilkinson, A., A. Haque, J. Kodikara, J. Adamson, and D. Christie. 2010. “Improvement of problematic soils by lime slurry pressure injection: Case study.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (10): 1459–1468. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000359.
Williams, H. F. L. 2003. “Urbanization pressure increases potential for soils-related hazards, Denton County, Texas.” Environ. Geol. 44 (8): 933–938. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-003-0836-8.
Witherspoon, W. T., and A. J. Puppala. 2008. “Axial capacity estimation of drilled shafts in expansive and high plastic clay at different seasonal installation period.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 2 (1): 59–67. https://doi.org/10.3328/IJGE.2007.02.01.59-67.
Yuan, D., and S. Nazarian. 1993. “Automated surface wave method: Inversion process.” J. Geotech. Eng. 119 (7): 1112–1126. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1993)119:7(1112).
Zheng, J. L., R. Zhang, and H. P. Yang. 2009. “Highway subgrade construction in expansive soil areas.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 21 (4): 154–162. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2009)21:4(154).
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148 • Issue 1 • January 2022
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Dec 17, 2020
Accepted: Jun 21, 2021
Published online: Oct 18, 2021
Published in print: Jan 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Mar 18, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Anthony L. Wong, Philip W. K. Chung, Florence L. F. Chu, Sunny T. C. So, Louis N. Y. Wong, Tensile properties of cement-stabilised clays and their contribution to seawall design, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Ground Improvement, 10.1680/jgrim.21.00047, (1-15), (2022).