Discrete-Element Simulation of Dense Sand under Uni- and Bidirectional Cyclic Simple Shear Considering Initial Static Shear Effect
Publication: International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 22, Issue 12
Abstract
Huge and critical structures, such as fuel storage tanks and nuclear power plants, are often built on dense sandy grounds, which may cause excessive plastic deformations under multidirectional cyclic shearing conditions caused by earthquakes. The lack of investigation of sand behavior under multidirectional loading may lead to unsafe designs, and thus significantly increase the maintenance cost for infrastructures during their long operational time, which might be longer than 100 years. This study presents a numerical investigation on the liquefaction behavior of dense sand under bidirectional cyclic simple shear using the discrete element method. The bidirectional cyclic simple shear tests with varying stress trajectories on the deviatoric stress plane, including figure-8, circular, and straight lines, were conducted. Additionally, a series of unidirectional loading tests was conducted in the simulation scheme for comparison purposes. The effect of the initial static shear on the cyclic behavior and liquefaction resistance of granular materials was examined. Four loading categories, including full reversal, partial reversal, intermediate reversal, and no reversal, were implemented in the numerical simulations. Although the presence of the initial static shear may enhance the cyclic resistance of granular samples under unidirectional loading, it mitigates the liquefaction resistance and promotes the failure of specimens under bidirectional shearing conditions. The microscopic analysis was performed to reveal the relationship between the fabric evolution and external loading, which can provide profound insights into the underlying mechanism of the cyclic behavior and liquefaction susceptibility of granular material when both the bidirectional shearing and initial static shear effects are considered.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The research described in this paper was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51825803 and 52020105003), which is gratefully acknowledged.
References
Bagi, K. 1999. “Microstructural stress tensor of granular assemblies with volume forces.” J. Appl. Mech. 66 (4): 934–936. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2791800.
Boulanger, R. W., C. K. Chan, H. B. Seed, R. B. Seed, and J. B. Sousa. 1993. “A low-compliance bi-directional cyclic simple shear apparatus.” Geotech. Test. J. 16 (1): 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10265J.
Castro, G. 1975. “Liquefaction and cyclic mobility of saturated sands.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 101 (6): 551–569. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000173.
Chang, C. S., and Z. Y. Yin. 2010. “Micromechanical modeling for inherent anisotropy in granular materials.” J. Eng. Mech. 136 (7): 830–839. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000125.
Chiaro, G. 2010. “Deformation properties of sand with initial static shear in undrained cyclic torsional shear tests and their modeling.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Tokyo.
Chiaro, G., J. Koseki, and T. Sato. 2012. “Effects of initial static shear on liquefaction and large deformation properties of loose saturated Toyoura sand in undrained cyclic torsional shear tests.” Soils Found. 52 (3): 498–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2012.05.008.
Christoffersen, J., M. M. Mehrabadi, and S. Nemat-Nasser. 1981. “A micromechanical description of granular material behavior.” J. Appl. Mech. 48 (2): 339–344. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3157619.
Duku, P. M., L. D. Suits, T. C. Sheahan, J. P. Stewart, D. H. Whang, and R. Venugopal. 2007. “Digitally controlled simple shear apparatus for dynamic soil testing.” Geotech. Test. J. 30 (5): 100518. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ100518.
Green, R. A., et al. 2012. “Geotechnical aspects of the Mw6.2 2011 Christchurch, New Zealand, earthquake.” In 2012 Annual Congress of the Geo-Institute of ASCE, Geotechnical Special Publication 225, 1700–1709. Christchurch, NZ: Univ. of Canterbury. Civil and Natural Resources Engineering.
Gu, X., J. Zhang, and X. Huang. 2020. “DEM analysis of monotonic and cyclic behaviors of sand based on critical state soil mechanics framework.” Comput. Geotech. 128: 103787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2020.103787.
Hosono, Y., and M. Yoshimine. 2004. “Liquefaction of sand in simple shear condition.” In Vol. 31 of Proc., Int. Conf., on Cyclic Behaviour of Soils and Liquefaction Phenomena, 129–136. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Hyodo, M., H. Murata, N. Yasufuku, and T. Fujii. 1991. “Undrained cyclic shear strength and residual shear strain of saturated sand by cyclic triaxial tests.” Soils Found. 31 (3): 60–76. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.31.3_60.
Ishihara, K. 1993. “Liquefaction and flow failure during earthquakes.” Géotechnique 43 (3): 351–451. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1993.43.3.351.
Ishihara, K., and F. Yamazaki. 1980. “Cyclic simple shear tests on saturated sand in multi-directional loading.” Soils Found. 20 (1): 45–59. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.20.45.
Kammerer, A. 2002. “Undrained response of Monterey 0/30 sand under multidirectional cyclic simple shear loading conditions.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California.
Kammerer, A. M., R. B. Seed, and J. M. Pestana. 2005. “Behavior of Monterey 0/30 sand under multidirectional loading conditions.” In Vol. 143 of Geomechanics: Testing, Modeling, and Simulation, Geotechnical Special Publication 143, edited by J. A. Yamamuro and J. Koseki, 154–173. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Ken-Ichi, K. 1984. “Distribution of directional data and fabric tensors.” Int. J. Eng. Sci. 22 (2): 149–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7225(84)90090-9.
Kozicki, J., and F. V. Donzé. 2008. “A new open-source software developed for numerical simulations using discrete modeling methods.” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 197 (49–50): 4429–4443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cma.2008.05.023.
Kumar, N., S. Luding, and V. Magnanimo. 2014. “Macroscopic model with anisotropy based on micro–macro information.” Acta Mech. 225 (8): 2319–2343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00707-014-1155-8.
Li, X. S., and Y. F. Dafalias. 2012. “Anisotropic critical state theory: Role of fabric.” J. Eng. Mech. 138 (3): 263–275. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000324.
Martin, G. R., W. D. L. Finn, and H. B. Seed. 1975. “Fundamentals of liquefaction under cyclic loading.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 101 (5): 423–438. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000164.
Martin, W. M. J., J. M. Jinal, A. D. Craig, and L. F. David. 2021. “A retrospective evaluation of the performance of the Lower San Fernando Dam.” Geo-Extreme 2021: Climatic Extremes and Earthquake Modeling, Geotechnical Special Publication 329, edited by C. L. Meehan, M. A. Pando, B. A. Leshchinsky, and N. H. Jafari, 89–100. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Matsuda, H., A. P. Hendrawan, R. Ishikura, and S. Kawahara. 2011. “Effective stress change and post-earthquake settlement properties of granular materials subjected to multi-directional cyclic simple shear.” Soils Found. 51 (5): 873–884. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.51.873.
Matsuda, H., H. Shinozaki, N. Okada, K. Takamiya, and K. Shinyama. 2004. “Effects of multi-directional cyclic shear on the post-earthquake settlement of ground.” In Vol. 2890 of Proc., 13th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering.Vancouver, BC: WCEE Secretariat.
Mohamad, R., and R. Dobry. 1986. “Undrained monotonic and cyclic triaxial strength of sand.” J. Geotech. Eng. 112 (10): 941–958. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1986)112:10(941).
Oda, M., and H. Nakayama. 1988. “Introduction of inherent anisotropy of soils in the yield function.” Stud. Appl. Mech. 20: 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-70523-5.50017-5.
Pan, K., and Z. X. Yang. 2018. “Effects of initial static shear on cyclic resistance and pore pressure generation of saturated sand.” Acta Geotech. 13 (5): 473–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-017-0614-5.
Pan, K., and Z. X. Yang. 2020. “Evaluation of the liquefaction potential of sand under random loading conditions: Equivalent approach versus energy-based method.” J. Earthquake Eng. 24 (1): 59–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2017.1398693.
PEER (Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center). 2000. “PEER Strong Motion Database.” Accessed July 13, 2007. http//peer.berkeley.edu/smcat/.
Robertson, P. K., and C. E. Wride. 1998. “Evaluating cyclic liquefaction potential using the cone penetration test.” Can. Geotech. J. 35 (3): 442–459. https://doi.org/10.1139/t98-017.
Rutherford, C. J., and G. Biscontin. 2013. “Development of a multidirectional simple shear testing device.” Geotech. Test. J. 36 (6): 20120173. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20120173.
Sawada, S., Y. Tsukamoto, and K. Ishihara. 2006. “Residual deformation characteristics of partially saturated sandy soils subjected to seismic excitation.” Soil. Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 26 (2–4): 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2004.11.024.
Seed, H. B. 1979. “Soil liquefaction and cyclic mobility evaluation for level ground during earthquakes.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 105 (2): 201–255. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000768.
Seed, H. B., R. M. Pyke, and G. R. Martin. 1978. “Effect of multidirectional shaking on pore pressure development in sands.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 104 (1): 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000575.
Sivathayalan, S., and D. Ha. 2011. “Effect of static shear stress on the cyclic resistance of sands in simple shear loading.” Can. Geotech. J. 48 (10): 1471–1484. https://doi.org/10.1139/t11-056.
Su, D., and X. S. Li. 2008. “Impact of multidirectional shaking on liquefaction potential of level sand deposits.” Géotechnique 58 (4): 259–267. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2008.58.4.259.
Sun, M., and G. Biscontin. 2018. “Development of pore pressure and shear strain in clean Hostun sands under multi-directional loading paths.” In Proc., GeoShanghai Int. Conf.: Fundamentals of Soil Behaviours, edited by A. Zhou, J. Tao, X. Gu, and L. Hu, 112–118. Singapore: Springer.
Sze, H. Y., and J. Yang. 2014. “Failure modes of sand in undrained cyclic loading: Impact of sample preparation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (1): 152–169. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000971.
Thornton, C. 2000. “Numerical simulations of deviatoric shear deformation of granular media.” Géotechnique 50 (1): 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2000.50.1.43.
Thornton, C., and L. Zhang. 2010. “On the evolution of stress and microstructure during general 3D deviatoric straining of granular media.” Géotechnique, 60 (5): 333–341.
Vaid, Y. P., and J. C. Chern. 1983. “Effect of static shear on resistance to liquefaction.” Soils Found. 23 (1): 47–60. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.23.47.
Vaid, Y. P., and W. D. L. Finn. 1979. “Static shear and liquefaction potential.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 105 (G10): 1233–1246. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000868.
Vaid, Y. P., and S. Sivathayalan. 1996. “Static and cyclic liquefaction potential of Fraser Delta sand in simple shear and triaxial tests.” Can. Geotech. J. 33 (2): 281–289. https://doi.org/10.1139/t96-007.
Wang, R., P. C. Fu, J. M. Zhang, and Y. F. Dafalias. 2019. “Fabric characteristics and processes influencing the liquefaction and re-liquefaction of sand.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 125: 105720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.105720.
Wei, J., D. Huang, and G. Wang. 2020. “Fabric evolution of granular soils under multidirectional cyclic loading.” Acta Geotech. 15 (9): 2529–2543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-020-00942-8.
Wu, Q. X., K. Pan, and Z. X. Yang. 2021a. “Undrained cyclic behavior of granular materials considering initial static shear effect: Insights from discrete element modeling.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 143: 106597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2021.106597.
Wu, Q. X., and Z. X. Yang. 2021. “Novel undrained servomechanism in discrete-element modeling and its application in multidirectional cyclic shearing simulations.” J. Eng. Mech. 147 (3): 04020155. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0001896.
Wu, Z. X., C. Dano, P. Y. Hicher, and Z. Y. Yin. 2021b. “Estimating normal effective stress degradation in sand under undrained simple shear condition.” Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng. 25 (1): 170–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2018.1521750.
Wu, Z. X., Z. Y. Yin, C. Dano, and P. Y. Hicher. 2020. “Cyclic volumetric strain accumulation for sand under drained simple shear condition.” Appl. Ocean Res. 101: 102200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2020.102200.
Yang, J., and H. Y. Sze. 2011. “Cyclic behaviour and resistance of saturated sand under non-symmetrical loading conditions.” Géotechnique 61 (1): 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.9.P.019.
Yang, Z. X., and K. Pan. 2017. “Flow deformation and cyclic resistance of saturated loose sand considering initial static shear effect.” Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 92: 68–78.
Yang, Z. X., and Y. Wu. 2017. “Critical state for anisotropic granular materials: A discrete element perspective.” Int. J. Geomech. 17 (2): 04016054. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000720.
Yang, Z. X., J. Yang, and L. Z. Wang. 2013. “Micro-scale modeling of anisotropy effects on undrained behavior of granular soils.” Granular Matter 15 (5): 557–572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10035-013-0429-5.
Yin, Z. Y., C. S. Chang, and P. Y. Hicher. 2011. “Micromechanical modelling for effect of inherent anisotropy on cyclic behaviour of sand.” Int. J. Solids Struct. 47 (14–15): 1933–1951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2010.03.028.
Yoshimine, M., K. Ishihara, and W. Vargas. 1998. “Effects of principal stress direction and intermediate principal stress on undrained shear behavior of sand.” Soils Found. 38 (3): 179–188. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.38.3_179.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 22 • Issue 12 • December 2022
Copyright
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 18, 2022
Accepted: Jun 4, 2022
Published online: Sep 23, 2022
Published in print: Dec 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Feb 23, 2023
ASCE Technical Topics:
- Continuum mechanics
- Deformation (mechanics)
- Discrete element method
- Engineering fundamentals
- Engineering materials (by type)
- Engineering mechanics
- Fluid mechanics
- Geomechanics
- Geotechnical engineering
- Granular materials
- Hydrologic engineering
- Laboratory tests
- Material mechanics
- Material properties
- Materials engineering
- Methodology (by type)
- Numerical methods
- Shear deformation
- Shear resistance
- Shear tests
- Soil liquefaction
- Soil mechanics
- Soil properties
- Solid mechanics
- Structural mechanics
- Tests (by type)
- Viscosity
- Water and water resources
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Q. X. Wu, K. Pan, Z. X. Yang, Effects of initial static shear on undrained cyclic behavior of granular materials: energy evolution and micromechanical interpretation, Granular Matter, 10.1007/s10035-022-01291-x, 25, 1, (2022).