Tornado-Resistant Residential Design Using Experimentally Obtained Characteristic Strength Values for Cement-Stabilized Earthen Masonry
Publication: Journal of Architectural Engineering
Volume 25, Issue 2
Abstract
Compressed and stabilized earthen masonry (CSEM) offers a sustainable, affordable, and locally appropriate alternative to traditional residential construction. It provides a method that can enable the community to solve their own housing needs instead of aiding them just one time. While a significant amount of work has recently been done to engineer earthen masonry systems, research gaps remain. To address some of these research gaps, the goals of this paper include understanding the capacity of unreinforced and reinforced CSEM walls against extreme wind loads and developing a systematic approach to the schematic design of residential structures with safe rooms utilizing a combination of empirical data, statistical analysis, and available codes and standards. For this purpose, experimentally obtained compressive strength data for compressed and 10% cement-stabilized earth blocks, soil-based mortars, and CSEM assemblies are statistically analyzed. The test data are then benchmarked to a similar study with concrete masonry units and traditional mortars to understand the relative level of variability of CSEM assemblies and interactions of units and mortar in each type of masonry. After such analysis, the CSEM characteristic strength is computed statistically, following TMS 602 (specification for masonry structures) criteria for concrete and clay masonry. The characteristic strength is then used in the design of a conceptual single-family dwelling with a tornado-resistant safe room, assumed to be located in Winnebago, Nebraska. The site selection has a significance in that the Indian reservation in Winnebago is a plausible location for this technology’s future adoption due to their acute housing needs and the habitants’ open-minded approach to sustainable building design. The study’s findings indicate that with a proper recipe for the local soils, a good workmanship of CSEM components, and a careful design of the CSEM walls and connections, this technology can be utilized in a residence located in an area subject to tornadoes.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This material is partially supported by the National Science Foundation under companion grants 1131509 and 1131161. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Some of the site characteristics and the hypothetical site selection reflects those of the Winnebago American Indian Reservation. Their collaboration during the project in the forms of guidance in design characteristics and for the soil collection is appreciated. The authors would also like to thank Kelvin Lein, Avery Schwer, Benjamin Wagner, Linsey Rohe, Cody Largent, Marissa Gigantelli, Luke Dolezal, Austin Seagren, and Elena Hoff at University of Nebraska–Lincoln for their assistance with the experimental work.
References
ACI (American Concrete Institute). 2011. Building code requirements for structural concrete. ACI 318-11. Farmington Hills, MI: ACI.
ASCE. 2010. Minimum design loads for buildings and other structures. ASCE 7-10. Reston, VA: Structural Engineering Institute, ASCE.
ASTM. 2012. Standard test method for compressive strength of masonry prisms. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
ASTM. 2016a. Standard test method for compressive strength of hydraulic cement mortars (Using 2-in or [50-mm] cube specimens). ASTM C109. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
ASTM. 2016b. Vol. 4.5 of Standard test method for compressive strength of masonry prisms. ASTM C1314. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
ASTM. 2014. Standard specification for mortar for unit masonry. ASTM C270. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
ASTM. 2017. Standard test methods for sampling and testing concrete masonry units and related units. ASTM C140. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
Bland, D. W. 2011. “In-plane cyclic shear performance of interlocking compressed earth block walls.” Master’s thesis, Civil and Environmental Engineering Dept., CA Polytechnic State Univ.
Brown, R. H., and J. G. Borchelt. 1990. Compression tests of hollow brick units and prisms. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
CBSC (California Building Standards Commission). 2010. California building code. Sacramento, CA: CBSC.
Colley, E., and E. Erdogmus. 2015. “Effects of cement stabilization and fibers on the water resistance of compressed stabilized earth blocks.” Masonry Soc. J. 34 (1): 49–70.
Earthco. 2011. “Impact Testing Earthco Megablock. Accessed October 6, 2017.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6SZzZOMfV8.
Erdogmus, E., and E. Garcia. 2015. “Influence of stabilizers on the compressive strength of compressed stabilized earth block masonry.” In Proc., 12th North American Masonry Conf. (12NAMC). Denver, CO: The Masonry Society.
FEMA. 2014. Taking shelter from the storm: Building a safe room for your home or small business. FEMA P-320. 4th ed. Washington, DC: FEMA.
FEMA. 2015. Safe rooms for tornadoes and hurricanes: Guidance for community and residential safe rooms. FEMA P-361. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: FEMA.
Haub, C., and J. Gribble. 2011. “The world at 7 billion.” Population Bull. 66 (2).
Ho-Chunk. 2017. Accessed February 27, 2019. https://hochunkinc.com.
Holliday, L., C. Ramseyer, M. Reyes, and D. Butko. 2016. “Building with compressed earth block within the building code.” J. Archit. Eng. 22 (3): 04016007. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000198.
Houben, H., and H. Guillaud. 2003. Earth construction: A comprehensive guide. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
IBC (International Building Code). 2015. International building code. Washington, DC: IBC.
ICC (International Code Council). 2014. ICC/NSSA standard for the design and construction of storm shelters. ICC 500. Washington, DC: American National Standard, ICC.
Johnson, N. L., and B. L. Welch. 1940. “Applications of the non-central t-distribution.” Biometrika 31 (3–4): 362–389. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/31.3-4.362.
Kennedy, N. E. 2013. “Seismic design manual for interlocking compressed earth blocks.” Master’s thesis, Civil and Environmental Engineering Dept., CA Polytechnic State Univ.
Kumar, N., M. Barbato, and R. Holton. 2018. “Feasibility study of affordable earth masonry housing in the U.S. Gulf Coast region.” J. Archit. Eng. 24 (2): 04018009. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000311.
Laursen, P. T., N. A. Herskedal, D. C. Jansen, and B. Qu. 2015. “Out-of-plane structural response of interlocking compressed earth block walls.” Mater. Struct. 48 (1–2): 321–336. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-013-0186-2.
Madsen, H. O., S. Krenk, and N. C. Lind. 2006. Methods of structural safety. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
Matta, F., M. C. Cuéllar-Azcárate, and E. Garbin. 2015. “Earthen masonry dwelling structures for extreme wind loads.” Eng. Struct. 83 (Jan): 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2014.10.043.
McGinley, M. W., D. B. Throop, and W. L. Coulbourne. 2017. “Tornado and high wind sheltering with masonry.” In Proc., 13th Canadian Masonry Symp. Halifax, Canada: Canadian Masonry Design Centre.
Memari, A., P. H. Huelman, L. D. Iulo, J. Laquatra, C. Martin, A. McCoy, I. Nahmens, and T. Williamson. 2014. “Residential building construction: State-of-the-art review.” J. Archit. Eng. 20 (4): B4014005. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000157.
Mohamad, G., P. B. Lourenço, and H. R. Roman. 2011. “Study of the compressive strength of concrete block prisms-stack and running bond.” IBRACON Struct. Mater. J. 4 (3): 347–358. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1983-41952011000300002.
Morel, J. C., A. Pkla, and P. Walker. 2007. “Compressive strength testing of compressed earth blocks.” Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (2): 303–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.08.021.
National Building Technology Centre. 1987. Bulletin 5—Earth wall construction, national building technology centre. Sydney, Australia: Chatswood.
NCMA (National Concrete Masonry Association). 2001. Floor and roof connections to concrete masonry walls. NCMA TEK 5-7A. Herndon, VA: NCMA.
NCMA (National Concrete Masonry Association). 2003. Residential details for high wind areas. NCMA TEK 5-11. Herndon, VA: NCMA.
NCMA (National Concrete Masonry Association). 2012. Recalibration of the unit strength method for verifying compliance with the specified compressive strength of concrete masonry. Rep. No. MR37. Herndon, VA: NCMA.
NDS (National Design Specification). 2012. National design specification for wood construction. Leesburg, VA: American Wood Council.
NZS (New Zealand Standards). 1998a. Engineering design of earth buildings. NZS 4297. Wellington, NZ: NZS.
NZS (New Zealand Standards). 1998b. Materials and workmanship for earth buildings. NZS 4298. Wellington, NZ: NZS.
NZS (New Zealand Standards). 1998c. Earth buildings not requiring specific design. NZS 4299. Wellington, NZ: NZS.
Reddy, B. V. V., G. Leuzinger, and V. S. Sreeram. 2014. “Low embodied energy cement stabilised rammed earth building—A case study.” Energy Build. 68A (Jan): 541–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.09.051.
SCPI (Structural Clay Products Institute). 1969. Recommended practice for engineered brick masonry. Reston, VA: Brick Industry Association (formerly SCPI).
State of New Mexico. 2009. New Mexico residential building code. Santa Fe, NM: New Mexico Regulation & Licensing Department.
Stirling, B. J. 2011. “Flexural behavior of interlocking compressed earth block shear walls subjected to in-plane loading.” Master’s thesis, Civil and Environmental Engineering Dept., CA Polytechnic State Univ.
TMS (The Masonry Society). 2016a. Building code requirements for masonry structures. TMS 402-16. Longmont, CO: TMS.
TMS (The Masonry Society). 2016b. Specification for masonry structures. TMS 602-16. Longmont, CO: TMS.
Walker, P., R. Keable, J. Martin, and V. Maniatidis. 2005. Rammed earth design and construction guidelines. Watford, UK: BRE Bookshop.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
© 2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Oct 6, 2017
Accepted: Sep 6, 2018
Published online: Mar 27, 2019
Published in print: Jun 1, 2019
Discussion open until: Aug 27, 2019
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.