Occurrence and Effects of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in the Environment
Publication: Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management
Volume 7, Issue 4
Abstract
This review focuses on environmental chemicals that mimic the activity of the endogenous estrogen, 17β-estradiol (E2), and their effects on wildlife, because it is the most studied area of endocrine disruption. The potential human health impact of endocrine disruptors is beyond the scope of this paper and readers should refer to other publications as reported by Crisp et al. in 1998 and Safe in 1995. The concentrations of endocrine disrupting chemicals in effluents from sewage treatment plants (STPs) are summarized and compared. By utilizing in vitro and in vivo assays, environmental estrogens from STPs and other point source pollutants have been shown to induce reproductive abnormalities in fish and wildlife. Though treatment systems of sewage facilities can reduce the amounts of endocrine disrupting chemicals, the removal efficiency can still be improved to further reduce estrogenic effects upon aquatic organisms. Up to date, a lack of comprehensive research impedes the ability to correlate estrogenic chemicals to community- and ecosystem-level effects. Thus, total ecosystem evaluations such as species diversity and impact on keystone species and understudied nonpoint source pollution should be two primary focuses of future research.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
References
Allen, Y., Scott, A. P., Matthiessen, P., Haworth, S., Thain, J. E., and Feist, S.(1999). “Survey of estrogenic activity in United Kingdom estuarine and coastal waters and its effects on gonadal development of the flounder Platichthys flesus.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 18(8), 1791–1800.
Ashfield, L., Pottinger, T. G., and Sumpter, J. P.(1998). “Exposure of female juvenile rainbow trout to alkylphenolic compounds results in modifications to growth and ovosomatic index.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 17(3), 679–686.
Baronti, C., Curini, R., D’Ascenzo, G., Di Corcia, A., Gentili, A., and Samperi, R.(2000). “Monitoring natural and synthetic estrogens at activated sludge sewage treatment plants and in a receiving river water.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 34(24), 5059–5066.
Belfroid, A. C., Van der Horst, A., Vethaak, A. D., Schafer, A. J., Rijs, G. B., Wegener, J., and Cofino, W. P.(1999). “Analysis and occurrence of estrogenic hormones and their glucuronides in surface water and waste water in The Netherlands.” Sci. Total Environ., 225(1–2), 101–108.
Berry, M., Metzger, D., and Chambon, P.(1990). “Role of the two activating domains of the oestrogen receptor in the cell-type and promoter-context dependent agonistic activity of the anti-oestrogen 4-hydroxytamoxifen.” EMBO J., 9(9), 2811–2818.
Blackburn, M. A., Kirby, S. J., and Waldock, M. J.(1999). “Concentrations of alkyphenol polyethoxylates entering UK estuaries.” Mar. Pollution Bull., 38, 109–118.
Bringolf, R. B., and Summerfelt, R. C.(2003). “Reduction of estrogenic activity of municipal wastewater by aerated lagoon treatment facilities.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 22(1), 77–83.
Colborn, T., and Clement, C. (1992). Chemically-induced alterations in sexual and functional development: The wildlife/human connection, Princeton Scientific, Princeton, N.J.
Colborn, T., vom Saal, F. S., and Soto, A. M.(1993). “Developmental effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in wildlife and humans.” Environ. Health Perspect., 101, 378–384.
Crisp, T. M., et al. (1998). “Environmental endocrine disruption: An effects assessment and analysis [see comments].” Environ. Health Perspect., 106 Suppl 1, 11–56.
Daughton, C. G., and Ternes, T. A.(1999). “Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: Agents of subtle change?” Environ. Health Perspect., 107 Suppl 6, 907–938.
Desbrow, C., Routledge, J., Brighty, G. C., Sumpter, J. P., and Waldock, M.(1998). “Identification of estrogenic chemicals in STW effluent. I: Chemical fractionation and in vitro biological screening.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 32(11), 1549–1558.
Dodson, S. I., Merrit, C. M., Shannahan, J.-P., and Shults, C. M.(1999a). “Low exposure concentrations of atrazine increase male production in Daphnia pulicaria.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 18(7), 1568–1573.
Dodson, S. I., Merrit, C. M., Torrentera, L., Winter, K. M., Tornehl, C. K., and Girvin, K.(1999b). “Dieldrin reduces male production and sex ratio in Daphnia galeata mendotae.” Toxicol. Ind. Health, 15, 192–199.
Donohoe, R. M., Wang-Buhler, J.-L., Buhler, D. R., and Curtis, L. R.(1999). “Effects of 3,3′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl on cytochrome p4501A and estrogen-induced vitellogenesis in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 18(5), 1046–1052.
Dube, M., and MacLatchy, D. L.(2000). “Endocrine responses of Fundulus heteroclitus to effluent from a bleached-kraft pulp mill before and after installation of reverse osmosis treatment of a waste stream.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 19, 2788–2796.
European Community. (1997). “Workshop Publication EUR 17549.” European Workshop on the Impact of Endocrine Disrupters on Human Health and Wildlife, Workshop Publication EUR 17549, Paris.
Feldman, D., Do, Y., Burshell, A., Stathis, P., and Loose, D. S.(1982). “An estrogen-binding protein and endogenous ligand in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Possible hormone receptor system.” Science, 218(4569), 297–298.
Fertuck, K. C.(2001). “Interaction of PAH-related compounds with the alpha and beta isoforms of the estrogen receptor.” Toxicol. Lett., 121(3), 167–177.
Fetterolf, P. M., Blokpoel, H., Mineau, P., and Tessier, G.(1984). “Incidence, clustering, and egg fertility of larger than normal clutches in Great Lakes Ring-billed Gulls.” J. Field Ornithol., 55(1), 81–88.
Folmar, L. C., Denslow, N. D., Rao, V., Chow, M., Crain, D. A., Enblom, J., Marcino, J., and Guilette, L. J.(1996). “Vitellogenin induction and reduced serum testosterone concentrations in feral male carp (Cyprinus carpio) captured near a major metropolitan sewage treatment plant.” Environ. Health Perspect., 104, 1096–1101.
Fox, G. A., and Boersma, D.(1983). “Characteristics of supernormal Ring-billed Gull clutches and their attending adults.” Wilson Bull., 95(4), 552–559.
Fry, D. M., Toone, C. K., Speich, S. M., and Peard, R. J.(1987). “Sex ratio skew and breeding patterns of gulls; demographic and toxicological considerations.” Stud. Avian Biol., 10, 26–43.
Garey, J., and Wolff, M. S.(1998). “Estrogenic and antiprogestagenic activities of pyrethroid insecticides.” Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 251, 955–959.
Gibbons, W. N., Munkittrick, K. R., McMaster, M. E., and Taylor, W. D.(1998a). “Monitoring aquatic environments receiving industrial effluents using small fish species 2: Comparison between responses of trout-perch (Percopsis omiscomaycus) and white sucker (Catostomus Commersoni) downstream of a pulp mill.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 17(11), 2238–2245.
Gibbons, W. N., Munkittrick, K. R., and Taylor, W. D.(1998b). “Monitoring aquatic environments receiving industrial effluents using small fish species. I: Response of Spoonhead sculpin (Cottus ricei) downstream of a bleached-kraft pulp mill.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 17, 2227–2237.
Gray, L. E., Jr., Lambright, C., Wilson, V., Ostby, J., Guilette, L. J., and Wilson, E. (2001). “In vivo and in vitro androgenic effects of β trenbolone, a potential feedlot effluent contaminant.” SETAC 22nd Annual Meeting, Baltimore, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Pensacola, Fla., 334.
Greenwood, P. J.(1980). “Mating systems, philopatry and dispersal in birds and mammals.” Anim. Behav., 28, 1140–1162.
Guillette, Jr., L. J., Gross, T. S., Masson, G. R., Matter, J. M., Percival, H. F., and Woodward, A. R.(1994). “Developmental abnormalities of the gonad and abnormal sex hormone concentrations in juvenile alligators from contaminated and control lakes in Florida.” Environ. Health Perspect., 102, 680–688.
Harries, J. E., et al. (1996). “A survey of estrogenic activity in United Kingdom inland waters.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 15(11), 1993–2002.
Harries, J. E., Janbakhsh, A., Jobling, S., Matthiessen, P., Sumpter, J. P., and Tyler, C. R.(1999). “Estrogenic potency of effluent from two sewage treatment works in the United Kingdom.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 18(5), 932–937.
Harries, J. E., Sheahan, D. A., Jobling, S., Matthiessen, P., Neall, P., Sumpter, J. P., Tylor, T., and Zaman, N.(1997). “Estrogenic activity in five United Kingdom rivers detected by measurement of vitellogenesis in caged male trout.” Environ. Health Perspect., 16(3), 534–542.
Hartmann, A., Terne, T. A., Burnison, B. K., Servos, M. R., van der Kraak, G., Eggert, T., Meisenheimer, M., and Waldmann, P. (1999). “Identification of a relevant endocrine disrupting compound in animal waste.” Abstracts, the 20th Annual Meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Philadelphia, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Pensacola, Fla., 139–140.
Hemming, J. M., Waller, W. T., Chow, M. C., Denslow, N. D., and Venables, B.(2001). “Assessment of the estrogenicity and toxicity of a domestic wastewater effluent flowing through a constructed wetland system using biomarkers in male flathead minnows (pimephales promelas rafinesque, 1820).” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 20(10), 2268–2275.
Hewitt, L. M., Tremblay, L., van der Kraak, G. J., Solomon, K. R., and Servos, M. R.(1998). “Identification of the lampricide 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol as an agonist for thr rainbow trout estrogen receptor.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 17(3), 425–432.
Huang, Y. W., Matthews, J. B., and Zacharewski, T. R. (2000). “Establishment of Xenopus laevis as a model for investigating in vitro and in vivo endocrine disruption in amphibians.” Abstract, 39th Annual Meeting of the Society of Toxicology, Philadelphia, Society of Toxicology, Reston Va., 238.
Irvine, C. H. G., Fitzpatrick, M. G., and Alexander, S. L.(1998). “Phytoestrogens in soy-based infant foods: Concentrations, daily intake, and possible biological effects.” Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 217, 247–253.
Islinger, M., Pawlowski, S., Hollert, H., Volkl, A., and Braunbeck, T.(1999). “Measurement of vitellogenin-mRNA expression in primary cultures of rainbow trout hepatocytes in non-radioactive dot blot/RNAse protection-assay.” Sci. Total Environ., 233, 109–122.
Jegou, B., Sots, A., Sundlof, S., Stephany, R., Meyer, H., and Leffers, H.(2001). “Exisiting guidelines for the use of meat hormones and other food additives in Europe and USA.” APMIS, 103(Suppl.), S551–S556.
Johnson, A. C., Belfroid, A., and Di Corcia, A. D.(2000). “Estimating steroid oestrogen inputs into activated sludge treatment works and observations on their removal from the effluent.” Sci. Total Environ., 256(2–3), 163–173.
Johnson, A. C., and Sumpter, J. P.(2001). “Removal of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in activated sludge treatment works.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35(24), 4697–4703.
Karels, A., Markkula, E., and Oikari, A.(2001). “Reproductive, biochemical, physiological, and population responses in perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) and roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) downstream of two elemental chlorine-free pulp and paper mills.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 20(7), 1517–1527.
Kavlock, R. J.et al. (1996). “Research needs for risk assessment of health and environmental effects of endocrine disruptors: A report of the U.S. EPA-sponsored workshop.” Environ. Health Perspect., 104, 715–740.
Kelly, S. A., and Di Giulio, R. T.(2000). “Developmental toxicity of estrogenic alkylphenols in killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus).” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 19(10), 2564–2570.
Kohno, H., Gandini, O., Curtis, S. W., and Korach, K. S.(1994). “Anti-estrogen activity in the yeast transcription system: Estrogen receptor mediated agonist response.” Steroids, 59(10), 572–578.
Körner, W., Hanf, V., Schuller, W., Bartsch, H., Zwirner, M., and Hagenmaier, H.(1998). “Validation and application of a rapid in vitro assay for assessing the estrogenic potency of halogenated phenolic chemicals.” Chemosphere, 37(9–12), 2395–2407.
Körner, W., Hanf, V., Schuller, W., Kempter, C., Metzger, J., and Hagenmaier, H.(1999). “Development of a sensitive E-screen assay for quantitative analysis of estrogenic activity in municipal sewage plant effluents.” Sci. Total Environ., 225(1–2), 33–48.
Lange, R., Hutchinson, T. H., Croudace, C. P., Siegmund, F., Schweinfurth, H., Hampe, P., Panter, G. H., and Sumpter, J. P.(2001). “Effects of the synthetic estrogen 17-ethinylestradiol on the life-cycle of the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas).” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 20(6), 1216–1227.
Matthews, J. B.(2001). “In vitro and in vivo interactions of bisphenol A and its metabolite, bisphenol A glucuronide, with estrogen receptors alpha and beta.” Chem. Res. Toxicol., 14(2), 149–157.
Matthews, J., Celius, T., Halgren, R., and Zacharewski, T. (2000a). “Differential estrogen receptor binding of estrogenic substances: A species comparison.” Abstract, 39th Annual Meeting of the Society of Toxicology, Philadephia, Society of Toxicology, Reston, Va., 383.
Matthews, J., Celius, T., Halgren, R., and Zacharewski, T.(2000b). “Differential estrogen receptor binding of estrogenic substances: A species comparison.” J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 74(4), 223–234.
Matthews, J., and Zacharewski, T.(2000). “Differential binding affinities of PCBs, HO-PCBs, and aroclors with recombinant human, rainbow trout (Onchorhynkiss mykiss), and green anole (Anolis carolinensis) estrogen receptors, using a semihigh throughput competitive binding assay.” Toxicol. Sci., 53(2), 326–39.
McNabb, A., Schreck, C., Tyler, C. R., Thomas, P., Kramer, V., Specker, J., Mayes, M., and Selcer, K. (1997). “Reproductive and developmental effects of contaminants of oviparous vertebrates.” Basic physiology, R. T. Di Giulio and D. E. Tillitt, eds., Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Press, Pensacola, Fla., 183.
Metcalfe, C. D., Metcalfe, T. L., Kiparissis, Y., Koenig, B. G., Khan, C., Hughes, R., Croley, T. R., March, R. E., and Potter, T.(2001). “Estrogenic potency of chemicals detected in sewage treatment plant ef-fluents as determined by in vivo assays with Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes).” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 20(2), 297–308.
Metcalfe, T. L., Metcalfe, C. D., Kiparissis, Y., Niimi, A. J., Foran, C. M., and Benson, W. H.(2000). “Gonadal development and endocrine responses in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) exposed to o,p′-DDT in water or through maternal transfer.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 7.
Missouri Clean Water Commission. (2002). Rep., Missouri Clean Water Commission Meeting, March 15, 2000.
Missouri Water Quality Coordinating Committee (2002). Minuetes, December 17, 2002.
Nichols, K. M., Miles-Richardson, S. R., Snyder, E. M., and Giesy, J. P.(1999). “Effects of exposure to municipal wastewater in situ on the reproductive physiology of the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas).” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 18, 2001–2012.
Noaksson, E., Tjarnlund, U., Bosveld, A. T. C., and Balk, L.(2001). “Evidence for endocrine disruption in perch (perca fluviatilis) and roach (rutilus rutilus) in a remote Swedish lake in the vicinity of a public refuse dump.” Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 174, 160–176.
Oberdörster, E., and Irwin, L. K. (2000). “Fate and effects of xenoestrogens excreted by cattle into farm ponds on painted turtle, Chrysemis picta.” Abstract, 21st Annual Meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Nashville, Tenn., Environmental Society of Toxicology and Chemistry, Pensacola, Fla., 103.
Osborne, C. K., Monaco, M. E., Kahn, C. R., Huff, K., Bronzert, D., and Lippman, M. E.(1979). “Direct inhibition of growth and antagonism of insulin action by glucocorticoids in human breast cancer cells in culture.” Cancer Res., 39(7 Pt 1), 2422–2428.
Peterson, T. G., Ji, G. P., Kirk, M., Coward, L., Falany, C. N., and Barnes, S.(1998). “Metabolism of the isoflavones genistein and biochanin A in human breast cancer cell lines.” Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 68(6 Suppl), 1505S–1511S.
Petrovic, M., Sole, M., Lopez De Alda, M. J., and Barcelo, D.(2002). “Endocrine disruptors in sewage treatment plants, receiving river waters, and sediments: Integration of chemical analysis and biological effects on feral carp.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 21(10), 2146–2156.
Poulin, R., Baker, D., and Labrie, F.(1988). “Androgens inhibit basal and estrogen-induced cell proliferation in the ZR-75-1 human breast cancer cell line.” Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 12(2), 213–225.
Poulin, R., Baker, D., Poirier, D., and Labrie, F.(1991). “Multiple actions of synthetic ‘progestins’ on the growth of ZR-75-1 human breast cancer cells: An in vitro model for the simultaneous assay of androgen, progestin, estrogen, and glucocorticoid agonistic and antagonistic activities of steroids.” Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 17(3), 197–210.
Poulin, R., Dufour, J. M., and Labrie, F.(1989). “Progestin inhibition of estrogen-dependent proliferation in ZR-75-1 human breast cancer cells: Antagonism by insulin.” Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 13(3), 265–276.
Ramamoorthy, K., Wang, F., Chen, I. C., Norris, J. D., McDonnell, D. P., Leonard, L. S., Gaido, K. W., Bocchinfuso, W. P., Korach, K. S., and Safe, S.(1997). “Estrogenic activity of a dieldrin/toxaphene mixture in the mouse uterus, MCF-7 human breast cancer cells, and yeast-based estrogen receptor assays: No apparent synergism.” Endocrinology, 138(4), 1520–1527.
Routledge, J., Sheahan, D., Desbrow, C., Brighty, G. C., Waldock, M., and Sumpter, J. P.(1998). “Identification of estrogenic chemicals in STW effluent. II: In vivo repsonse in trout and roach.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 32(11), 1559–1565.
Routledge, E. J., and Sumpter, J. P.(1997). “Structural features of alkylphenolic chemicals associated with estrogenic activity.” J. Biol. Chem., 272, 3280–3288.
Safe, S. H.(1995). “Environmental and dietary estrogens and human health: Is there a problem?” Environ. Health Perspect., 103(4), 346–351.
Sanderson, J. T., Seinen, W., Giesy, J. P., and van den Berg, M.(2000). “2-Chloro-s-triazine herbicides induce aromatase (CYP19) activity in H295R human adrenocortical carcinoma cells: A novel mechanism for estrogenicity?” Toxicol. Sci., 54(1), 121–127.
Sepulveda, M. S., Quinn, B. P., Denslow, N. D., Holm, S. E., and Gross, T. S.(2003). “Effects of pulp and paper mill effluents on reproductive success of largemouth bass.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 22(1), 205–213.
Sheahan, D. A., Brighty, G. C., Daniel, M., Jobling, S., Harries, J. E., Hurst, M. R., Kennedy, J., Kirby, S. J., Morris, S., Routledge, E. J., Sumpter, J. P., and Waldock, M. J.(2002a). “Reduction in the estrogenic activity of a treated sewage effluent discharge to an English river as a result of a decrease in the concentration of industrially derived surfactants.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 21(3), 515–519.
Sheahan, D. A., Brighty, G. C., Daniel, M., Kirby, S. J., Hurst, M. R., Kennedy, J., Morris, S., Routledge, E. J., Sumpter, J. P., and Waldock, M. J.(2002b). “Estrogenic activity measured in a sewage treatment works treating industrial inputs containing high concentrations of alkylphenolic compounds—A case study.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 21(3), 507–514.
Snyder, S. A., Keith, T. L., Verbrugge, D. A., Snyder, E. M., Gross, T. S., Kannan, K., and Giesy, J. P.(1999). “Analytical methods for detection of selected estrogenic compounds in aqueous mixtures.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 33(16), 2814–2820.
Sole, M., Lopez de Alda, M. J., Castillo, M., Porte, C., Ladegaard-Pedersen, K., and Barcelo, D.(2000). “Estrogenicity determination in sewage treatment plants and surface waters from the Catalonian Area (NE Spain).” Environ. Sci. Technol., 34(24), 5076–5083.
Soto, A. M., Lin, T.-M., Justicia, H., Silvia, R. M., and Sonnenschein, C.(1992). “An “in culture” bioassay to assess the estrogenicity of xenobiotics (E-screen).” Adv. Modern Environ. Toxicol., 21, 295–309.
Soto, A. M., Sonnenschein, C., Chung, H. L., Fernandez, M. F., Olea, N., and Serrano, F. O.(1995). “The E-screen assay as a tool to identify estrogens: An update on estrogenic environmental pollutants.” Environ. Health Perspect., 103(Suppl 7), 113–122.
Ternes, T. A., Kreckel, P., and Mueller, J.(1999a). “Behaviour and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plants. II: Aerobic batch experiments with activated sludge.” Sci. Total Environ., 225(1–2), 91–99.
Ternes, T. A., Stumpf, M., Mueller, J., Haberer, K., Wilken, R. D., and Servos, M.(1999b). “Behavior and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plants. I: Investigations in Germany, Canada and Brazil.” Sci. Total Environ., 225(1–2), 81–90.
Tyler, C. R., Beresford, N., van der Woning, M., Sumpter, J. P., and Thorpe, K.(2000). “Metabolism and environmental degradation of pyrethroid insecticides produce compounds with endocrine activities.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 19(4), 801–809.
Vignon, F., Bardon, S., Chalbos, D., and Rochefort, H.(1983). “Antiestrogenic effect of R5020, a synthetic progestin in human breast cancer cells in culture.” J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 56(6), 1124–1130.
Westerlund, L., Billsson, K., Anderson, P. L., Tysklind, M., and Olsson, P.-E.(2000). “Early life-stage mortality in zebrafish (Danio rerio) following maternal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and estrogen.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 19, 1582–1588.
White, R., Jobling, S., Hoare, S. A., Sumpter, J. P., and Parker, M. G.(1994). “Environmentally persistent alkyophenolic compounds are estrogenic.” Endocrinology, 135, 175–182.
Williams, J. P., Courtenay, S. C., and Wilson, C. E.(1998). “Annual sex steroid profiles and effects of gender and season on cytochrome P450 mRNA induction in Atlantic tomcod (Microgadus tomcod).” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 17(8), 1582–1588.
Wilson, V., Lambright, C., Ostby, J., and Gray, L. E. Jr., (2002). “In vitro and in vivo effluents of 17β-trenbolone: A feedlot effluent contaminant.” Toxicol. Sci., 70, 202–211.
Zacharewski, T.(1997). “In vitro bioassays for assessing estrogenic substances.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 31(3), 613–623.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management
Volume 7 • Issue 4 • October 2003
Pages: 241 - 252
Copyright
Copyright © 2003 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jun 9, 2003
Accepted: Jun 9, 2003
Published online: Sep 15, 2003
Published in print: Oct 2003
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.