TECHNICAL PAPERS
Dec 1, 2006

Considerations for Storm-Water Outfalls off Exposed Coasts

Publication: Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Volume 132, Issue 6

Abstract

There is a worldwide movement for coastal municipalities in developed countries to replace whole series of storm drains with far fewer storm-water outfalls that discharge well offshore. Such an extended-length pipe, passing into the surf zone along an exposed coastline, is far from easy to plan, support with data, design, install, and operate. This paper is intended to school drainage engineers in these matters.

Get full access to this article

View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.

References

Alves, J. H. G. M., and Young, I. R. (2003). “On estimating extreme wave heights using combined Geosat, Topex/Poseidon and ERS-1 altimeter data.” Appl. Ocean. Res., 25, 167–186.
Anderson, H. V. (1987). “Horse concept speeds placement of Santa Cruz ocean outfall.” California Builder and Engineer, 93(22), 24–27.
ASCE. (1969). Design and construction of sanitary and storm sewers, Manual of Practice No. 9, New York.
Barrow, M. R. (1996). “Lost and found: Hurricane Bertha decorates beach with pieces from an old shipwreck.” The Virginian-Pilot, July 18, Norfolk, Va.
Belcher, T. R. (1991). “Distant eyes.” Civ. Eng. (N.Y.), 61(5), 53–55.
Bell, M., and Hall, J. W. (1994). “Effects of Hurricane Hugo on South Carolina’s marine artificial reefs.” Bull. Mar. Sci., 55, 836–847.
Blair, S. M., et al. (1994). “Impacts of Hurricane Andrew on the offshore reef systems of central and northern Dade County, Florida.” Bull. Mar. Sci., 54, 961–973.
Boodt, C. (1981). “Protection of submerged pipelines against damage by anchors.” Dock Harbour Auth., 62(728), 66–70.
Burcharth, H. F., and Thompson, A. C. (1983). “Stability of armour units in oscillatory flow.” Proc., Coastal Structures ’83, ASCE, Arlington, Va., 71–82.
Byles, R. (1995). “Bolt hold.” New Civ. Eng. Int., 1126, 22–23.
Carr, H. (1993). “Cities and EPA ramp up combined sewer fixes.” ENR, 231(22), 46–47.
Cevik, E., and Yuksel, Y. (1999). “Scour under submarine pipelines in waves in shoaling conditions.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 125(1), 9–19.
Chandler, K., et al. (2004). “Light at the end of the tunnel.” Civ. Eng. (N.Y.), 74(4), 66–73.
Chin, D. A., et al. (1997). “The structure of ocean-surface currents measured by Doppler radar.” IEEE J. Ocean. Eng., 22, 156–167.
Cialone, M. A. (1994). “The Coastal Modeling System (CMS): A coastal processes software package.” J. Coastal Res., 10, 576–587.
Clark, M. W. (1994). “Reconstruction of British nuclear fuel’s Drigg marine outfall.” J. Inst. Water Environ. Manage., 8, 109–119.
Coastal Engineering Research Center. (1984). Shore protection manual, 3 vols., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, Miss.
Collins, J. I. (1995). “Damage to unburied flowlines in the Gulf of Mexico during Hurricane Andrew.” Proc., 27th Annual Offshore Technology Conf., Houston, Paper No. OTC 7859.
Cooper, A. J., and Allan, N. D. (1995). “Simulation of storm surges induced by hurricanes near Bermuda.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Waters. Maritime Energ., 112, 115–126.
Cooper, C. K., and Forristall, G. Z. (1995). “On the use of satellite wave data to derive extreme criteria.” Proc., 27th Annual Offshore Technology Conf., Houston, Paper No. OTC 7681.
“CSO plan likes deep tunnels.” (1994). ENR, 233(20), 23.
Dalrymple, R. A. (1988). “Model for refraction of water waves.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 114(4), 423–435.
Davis, R. E., and Dolan, R. (1992). “The ‘All Hallows’ Eve’ coastal storm—October 1991.” J. Coastal Res., 8, 978–983.
Dayton, P. K., et al. (1989). “Unusual marine erosion in San Diego County from a single storm.” Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci., 29, 151–160.
Dean, R. G. (1974). “Evaluation and development of water wave theories for engineering application.” Special Rep. No. 1, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Vicksburg, Miss.
Dean, R. G. (2000). “Storm damage reduction potential via beach nourishment.” Coastal Engineering 2000, Sydney, Australia, 3305–3318.
de Britto, E. R., et al. (1986). “Ten years of operation of Rio de Janeiro’s Ipanema submarine outfall.” Water Sci. Technol., 18(11), 177–187.
DeLuca, M. (2004). “Ivan—The aftermath.” Offshore Engineer, Nov. 12–15.
DeTracey, B. M., et al. (1996). “Low-frequency currents at the northern shelf edge of the Grand Banks.” J. Geophys. Res., [Oceans], 101(C6), 14223–14235.
“District of Columbia has big plan to limit combined sewer discharge.” (2001). ENR, 247(2), 12.
Dorling, C., and Handcock. R. D. (1988). “Engineering performance monitoring and maintenance of sea outfalls.” Long sea outfalls, Institution of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford, London, 137–149.
“Drogden dredging defies bombs.” (1996). Tunnels Tunnel. Int., 28(10), 7.
Duncan, R. S., Wharton, S. T., and Botterill, T. J. (1991). “A replacement outfall for Peterhead.” J. Inst. Water Environ. Manage., 5(3), 265–271.
Dwyer, M. G., et al. (2005). “Ivan the Terrible: Hurricane’s impact raises design criteria questions.” Offshore, 65(2), 50–54.
Earle, M. D. (1975). “Extreme wave conditions during Hurricane Camille.” J. Geophys. Res., 80(3), 377–379.
Everts, C. H., and Gibson, P. N. (1982). “Shoreline movements 1849–1980, Cape Henry, Virginia, to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.” Proc., Oceans 82, Marine Technology Society, Washington, D.C., 984–989.
Fijen, A. P. M., and Marsden, M. G. (1992). “Green Point sewage disposal options.” Water Sci. Technol., 25(9), 133–142.
FitzGerald, D. M., et al. (1994). “Shoreline processes and damage resulting from the Halloween Eve Storm of 1991 along the north and south shores of Massachusetts Bay, USA.” J. Coastal Res., 10(1), 113–132.
Fleming, D. (2003). “Sellafield outfall sections end up on beach.” New Civ. Eng. Int., 1511, 5.
French, J. A., et al. (1993). “Protecting the Boca Raton outfall before and after Hurricane Andrew.” Hydraulic Engineering ’93, July, 543–548.
Frost, J. (2005). “Snags threaten NMB project deadline.” The Sun News, March 24, Myrtle Beach, S.C.
Gee, T. (2002). “Fisherman’s friend.” Offshore Engineer, September, 52–53.
Glass, J. W. (2005a). “Last part of oceanfront replenishment is approved.” The Virginian-Pilot, Nov. 17, Norfolk, Va.
Glass, J. W. (2005b). “Sand money may instead settle suit.” The Virginian-Pilot, July 2, Norfolk, Va.
Gokce, K. T. (1992). “Effect of sand size on the mode of scour for pipelines exposed to waves.” Proc., 2nd Int. Offshore and Polar Engineering Conf., San Francisco, 2, 86–91.
Gower, J. F. R. (1996). “Intercalibration of wave and wind data from TOPEX/POSEIDON and moored buoys off the west coast of Canada.” J. Geophys. Res., [Oceans], 101, 3817–3829.
Grace, R. A. (1978). Marine outfall systems: Planning, design, and construction, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Grace, R. A. (1997). “Returning impaired marine outfall diffusers to full service.” J. Environ. Eng., 123(3), 297–303.
Grace, R. A. (2001). “An unusual marine outfall off central California, USA.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Waters. Maritime Energ., 148(3), 133–141, with discussion and closure 156(WM3), 285–289.
Grant, F. A., et al. (1978). “Design of an outfall.” J. Water Pollut. Control Fed., 50(2), 347–361.
“Gravel use increasing for pipeline cover.” (1984). Offshore, 44 (4), 58–62.
Guijt, J., and Horenberg, J. A. G. (1987). “Recent investigations concerning the effect of bottom trawl gear crossings on submarine pipeline integrity.” Proc., 19th Annual Offshore Technology Conf., Houston, Paper No. OTC 5616.
Hamm, L., et al. (1993). “Wave transformation in the nearshore zone: A review.” Coastal Eng., 21, 5–39.
Harris, G. L. (2006). “Jonah and the whaler.” Underwater, 18(2), 12–20.
Heathcote, K. A., and Britton, G. W. (1980). “Construction and model investigation of stormwater outfall.” Proc., 17th Coastal Engineering Conf., Sydney, Australia, 1849–1868.
Herbich, J. B., et al., eds. (1984). Seafloor scour: Design guidelines for ocean-founded structures, Marcel Dekker, New York.
Hoke, J. (2005). “Outfall work continues; road set to reopen.” The Sun News, Feb. 1, Myrtle Beach, S.C.
Horenberg, J. A. G., and Guijt, J. (1987). “An analytical and experimental analysis of trawl gear-pipeline interaction.” Proc., 19th Annual Offshore Technology Conf., Houston, Paper No. OTC 5617.
“Innovations spur repair to San Diego’s sewage outfall pipe.” (1992). Public Works, 123(13), 52–54.
Jeng, D. S., Postma, P. F., and Lin, Y. S. (2001). “Stresses and deformation of buried pipeline under wave loading.” J. Transp. Eng., 127(5), 398–407.
Jones, B., and Hunter, I. G. (1992). “Very large boulders on the coast of Grand Cayman: The effects of giant waves on rocky coastlines.” J. Coastal Res., 8, 763–774.
Jubinville, R. A., and Arsenault, R. D. (1983). “Design features and construction techniques for ocean outfall, Scarborough, Maine.” Pipelines in adverse environments II, ASCE, Reston, Va., 552–562.
Kantardgi, I. G. (1992). “Incipiency of sediment motion under combined waves and currents.” J. Coastal Res., 8, 332–339.
Kemp, G. V., Jones, D. W., and Husselbee, B. W. (2002). “Outfall inspection program.” Proc., Solutions to Coastal Disasters '02, ASCE, San Diego, 253–266.
Komar, P. D., and Miller, M. C. (1973). “The threshold of sediment movement under oscillatory water waves.” J. Sediment. Petrol., 43, 1101–1110, with discussion and closure 45, 362–367.
Landers, J. (2004). “Wastewater: Proposed tunnel would benefit Boston beaches.” Civ. Eng. (N.Y.), 74(5), 28–29.
Lee, J. H. W., et al. (2001). “On the head-discharge relation of a ‘duckbill’ elastomer check valve.” J. Hydraul. Res., 39, 619–627.
Leenknecht, D. A., et al. (1995). “Automated tools for coastal engineering.” J. Coastal Res., 11(4), 1108–1124.
Lees, J. (1976). “Walking platform, pipelay ‘Horse’ used in outfall construction.” Ocean Industry, 11(3).
Le Ven, J. Y., et al. (1992). “Coastal surveying by satellite and helicopter over the channels of the Arcachon Basin.” Int. Hydrogr. Rev, 69, 117–131.
Li, B., et al. (2002). “An investigation of inshore wave conditions using satellite data.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Waters. Maritime Energ., 154(4), 275–283.
Lindsay, J. A., and Aguirre, R. (2004). “Global offshore hazardous materials sites GIS.” Mar. Technol. Soc. J., 38(3), 36–43.
Ludwig, R. G. (1988). “Environmental impact assessment: Siting and design of submarine outfalls.” MARC Rep. No. 43, World Health Organization.
Maa, J. P. Y. (1993). “ ‘Halloween’ wave transformation near Virginia coast.” Hydraulic engineering ’93, ASCE, Reston, Va., 1260–1265.
Maa, J. P. Y., and Wang, D. W. C. (1995). “Wave transformation near Virginia coast: The ‘Halloween’ Northeaster.” J. Coastal Res., 11, 1258–1271.
Mars, S., and Vriesendorp, R. J. (1994). “Experiences in seismic profiling and processing.” Hydrographic J., 73, 29–33.
McDougal, W. G., et al. (1988). “Wave-induced forces on buried pipelines.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 114(2), 220–236.
Miller, H. C., Birkmerier, W. A., and Dewall, A. E. (1983). “Effects of CERC research pier on nearshore processes.” Proc., Coastal Structures ’83, ASCE, Arlington, Va., 769–784.
“Milwaukee detention tunnel aimed at Great Lakes overflows.” (2002). ENR, 249(5), 17.
Moersdorf, P., and Meindl, E. (2003). “Sustained ocean observations and the role of NOAA’s marine observation network.” Mar. Technol. Soc. J., 37(3), 67–74.
Mogridge, G. R., and Jamieson, W. W. (1978). “Non-breaking and breaking wave loads on a cooling water outfall.” Proc., 16th Coastal Engineering Conf., Hamburg, Germany, 2461–2480.
Murphy, G. J., and Eisenberg, Y. (1985). “San Francisco outfall: The champ?” Civ. Eng. (N.Y.), 55(12), 58–61.
Nataraja, M. S., and Gill, H. S. (1983). “Ocean wave-induced liquefaction analysis.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 109(4), 573–590.
Nelson, R. C. (1985). “Wave heights in depth limited conditions.” Civil Engineering Transactions, The Institution of Engineers, Australia, CE27, 210–215.
Neu, B. A. (2004). “Overcoming obstacles by diving beneath them.” Public Works, 135(4), 42–44.
Niedoroda, A. W., et al. (1981). “The descriptive physics of scour in the ocean environment.” Proc., 13th Annual Offshore Technology Conf., Houston, 2, 297–304.
Noble, R. M. (2002). “Beach nourishment construction at twelve San Diego County, California, receiver beach sites.” World Dredging, Mining & Construction, 38(2), 7–20.
“Offshore pipe line completed with 3,800ft directional drill.” (2000). Pipe Line & Gas Industry, 83(4), 63K–63L.
O’Niell, W. L., and Woolsey, J. R. (1991). “Recent developments in reconnaissance sampling systems for nearshore applications.” Marine Mining, 10, 155–169.
“Overflow work needs funding.” (2002). ENR, 249(5), 15.
Paduan, J. D., et al. (2004). “A national coastal ocean surface current mapping system for the United States.” Mar. Technol. Soc. J., 38(2), 102–108.
Paduan, J. D., and Shulman, I. (2004). “HF radar data assimilation in the Monterey Bay area.” J. Geophys. Res., [Oceans], 109, C07S09.
Pilkey, O. H., and Dixon, K. L. (1996). The corps and the shore, Island Press, Washington, D.C.
“Pipeline problems, North Sea.” (1980). Mar. Pollution Bull., 11, 147–148.
Pollock, C. B. (1995). “Helicopter-borne nearshore survey system, a valuable tool in difficult survey areas.” J. Coastal Res., 11, 959–966.
Posey, M., et al. (1996). “Influence of storm disturbance on an offshore benthic community.” Bull. Mar. Sci., 59, 523–529.
Powell, R. M., and Van Heuit, R. E. (1968). “Ocean outfall maintenance and repair.” J. Water Pollut. Control Fed., 40(11), Part 1, 1900–1904.
Quick, M. C., et al. (1987). “Onset of sediment motion under waves and currents.” Can. J. Civ. Eng., 14, 196–206.
Redden, J. (1984). “Pipeliners stay busy in North Sea.” Offshore, 44(7), 44–45.
Riedel, P., and O’Brien, P. (2000). “Field wave and current model testing for pipelines.” Coastal Engineering 2000, Sydney, Australia, 1763–1772.
Ritch, E. (2005a). “Drainage project looks off track.” The Sun News, Mar. 22, Myrtle Beach, S.C.
Ritch, E. (2005b). “Outfall company sues city for $4 million.” The Sun News, Mar. 29, Myrtle Beach, S.C.
Ritch, E. (2005c). “Stormwater plans stall as tourist season looms.” The Sun News, May 14, Myrtle Beach, S.C.
Roberts, D. G. M., et al. (1984). “Weymouth and Portland marine treatment scheme: Tunnel outfall and marine treatment works.” Proc., Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1, 76, 117–143, with discussion 78, 1985, 959–990.
“Rock dumping in New York—Long Island.” (2003). World Dredging, Mining & Construction, 39(7), 12–13.
“Rock dumping project secures pipe line off NW Australia.” (1993). Pipe Line Industry, 76(6), 36.
Russo, E. P. (1998). “Estimating hurricane storm surge amplitudes for the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coastline of the United States.” Proc., Oceans ’98 Conf., IEEE, New York, 1301–1305.
Sallenger, A. H., et al. (2004). “Assessing storm-induced damage and dune erosion using airborne Lidar: Examples from Hurricane Isabel.” Shore Beach, 72(2), 3–7.
Sallenger, A. H., Jr., et al. (1985). “Storm-induced response of a nearshore-bar system.” Marine Geology, 64, 237–257.
“Sewage storage tunnel to reduce Toronto beach closures.” (2000). Civ. Eng. (N.Y.), 70(1), 14.
Seymour, R. J. (1989). “Wave observations in the storm of 17-18 January 1988.” Shore Beach, 57(4), 10–13.
Shotbolt, K. (1995). “Design, techniques bring big line on to congested shore.” Oil & Gas J., 93(32), 54–57.
Signorini, S. R., et al. (1992). “Hurricane-induced surge and currents on the Texas-Louisiana Shelf.” J. Geophys. Res., [Oceans], 97(C2), 2229–2242.
Sleath, J. F. A. (1982). “The suspension of sand by waves.” J. Hydraul. Res., 20, 439–452.
Sleath, J. F. A. (1999). “Depth of erosion under storm conditions.” Proc., Conf. of Coastal Engineering 1998, ASCE, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2968–2979.
Soulsby, R. (1997). Dynamics of marine sands: A manual for practical applications, Thomas Telford, London.
Standish-White, D. W., and Zwamborn, J. A. (1978). “Problems of design and construction of an offshore seawater intake.” Proc., 16th Coastal Engineering Conf., Hamburg, Germany, 2125–2139.
Swain, A. (1985). “Equilibrium beach profiles: Prediction of coastal erosion due to severe storms.” Coastal Zone ’85 ASCE, Baltimore, 1963–1970.
Swift, R. H., and Dixon, J. C. (1987). “Transformation of regular waves.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Part 2. Res. Theory, Part 2, 83, 359–380.
Teh, T. C., Palmer, A. C., and Damgaard, J. S. (2003). “Experimental study of marine pipelines on unstable and liquified seabed.” Coastal Eng., 50(1/2), 1–17.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1994). “Beach erosion control and hurricane protection study.” General Reevaluation Rep., Norfolk, Va.
Vaughan, N. D., et al. (1987). “The impact of Hurricane Diana on the North Carolina continental shelf.” Marine Geology, 76, 169–176.
Vidal, C., et al. (2002). “Prototype analysis of stability of rubble mound protections for submarine outfalls.” Coastal Engineering 2002, Cardiff, Wales, 1936–1948.
Walford, D. (1988). “Stones protect seabed gas lines.” New Civ. Eng. Int., 749, 18.
Wallis, R. R. (1988). “Design for construction.” Long sea outfalls, Chap. 7, Institution of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford, London.
Wamsley, T. V., and Birkemeier, W. A. (2004). “Hurricane Isabel.” Shore Beach, 72(2), 2.
Wang, D. W., et al. (2005). “Extreme waves under Hurricane Ivan.” Science, 309(5736), 896.
Williams, G. L., and Randall, R. E. (2003). “Submerged ordnance and unrestrained cylinder movement in coastal zone.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 129(3), 136–145.
Yang, Q. S., et al. (1994). “Traveling wave-induced liquefaction of sand deposits.” Can. J. Civ. Eng., 21(2), 186–194.
Zhang, K., et al. (2005). “Quantification of beach changes by Hurricane Floyd along Florida’s Atlantic coast using airborne laser surveys.” J. Coastal Res., 21, 123–134.

Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Go to Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Volume 132Issue 6December 2006
Pages: 609 - 618

History

Received: Aug 24, 2005
Accepted: Mar 29, 2006
Published online: Dec 1, 2006
Published in print: Dec 2006

Permissions

Request permissions for this article.

Authors

Affiliations

Robert A. Grace
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822. E-mail: [email protected]

Metrics & Citations

Metrics

Citations

Download citation

If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.

Cited by

View Options

Get Access

Access content

Please select your options to get access

Log in/Register Log in via your institution (Shibboleth)
ASCE Members: Please log in to see member pricing

Purchase

Save for later Information on ASCE Library Cards
ASCE Library Cards let you download journal articles, proceedings papers, and available book chapters across the entire ASCE Library platform. ASCE Library Cards remain active for 24 months or until all downloads are used. Note: This content will be debited as one download at time of checkout.

Terms of Use: ASCE Library Cards are for individual, personal use only. Reselling, republishing, or forwarding the materials to libraries or reading rooms is prohibited.
ASCE Library Card (5 downloads)
$105.00
Add to cart
ASCE Library Card (20 downloads)
$280.00
Add to cart
Buy Single Article
$35.00
Add to cart

Get Access

Access content

Please select your options to get access

Log in/Register Log in via your institution (Shibboleth)
ASCE Members: Please log in to see member pricing

Purchase

Save for later Information on ASCE Library Cards
ASCE Library Cards let you download journal articles, proceedings papers, and available book chapters across the entire ASCE Library platform. ASCE Library Cards remain active for 24 months or until all downloads are used. Note: This content will be debited as one download at time of checkout.

Terms of Use: ASCE Library Cards are for individual, personal use only. Reselling, republishing, or forwarding the materials to libraries or reading rooms is prohibited.
ASCE Library Card (5 downloads)
$105.00
Add to cart
ASCE Library Card (20 downloads)
$280.00
Add to cart
Buy Single Article
$35.00
Add to cart

Media

Figures

Other

Tables

Share

Share

Copy the content Link

Share with email

Email a colleague

Share