Management of Fluid Mud in Estuaries, Bays, and Lakes. I: Present State of Understanding on Character and Behavior
This article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLYPublication: Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
Volume 133, Issue 1
Abstract
Fluid mud is a high concentration aqueous suspension of fine-grained sediment in which settling is substantially hindered. It constitutes a significant management problem in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and shelves by impeding navigation, reducing water quality and damaging equipment. Fluid mud accumulations have been observed in numerous locations worldwide, including Savannah Harbor, U.S., the Severn Estuary, U.K., and the Amazon River Delta, Brazil. This paper describes the present state of knowledge on fluid mud characteristics, processes, and modeling. Fluid mud consists of water, clay-sized particles, and organic material and displays a variety of rheological behaviors ranging from elastic to pseudo-plastic. It forms by three principle mechanisms: (1) the rate of sediment aggregation and settling into the near-bottom layer exceeds the dewatering rate of the suspension; (2) soft sediment beds fluidized by wave agitation; and (3) convergence of horizontally advected suspensions. Once formed, fluid mud is transported vertically by entrainment and horizontally by shear flows, gravity, and streaming. If not resuspended, it slowly consolidates to form bed material. Quantitative relationships have been formulated for key fluid mud formation and movement mechanisms, but they rely on empirical coefficients that are often site- or situation-specific and are not generally transferable. Research to define general relationships is needed.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This paper has been written by members of the Task Committee on Management of Fluid Mud in Estuaries, Bays, and Lakes, commissioned by the Committee on Tidal Hydraulics of the environmental and Water Resources Institute of the American Society of Civil engineers. Committee member Ashish Mehta, University of Florida; Robert Kirby, Ravernsrodd Consultants; and David Schoellhamer, U.S. Geological Survey, provided detailed reviews of the draft document.
References
Abril, G., Commarieu, M., Maro, D., Fontugne, M., Guerin, F., and Etcheber, H. (2004). “A massive dissolved inorganic carbon release at spring tide in a highly turbid estuary.” Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, 9, 19714–19726.
Abril, G., Etcheber, H., Le Hir, P., Bassoullet, P., Boutier, B., and Frankignoulle, M. (1999). “Oxic/anoxic oscillations and organic carbon mineralization in an estuarine maximum turbidity zone (the Grionde, France).” Limnol. Oceanogr., 44, 1304–1315.
Abril, G., Riou, S. A., Etcheber, H., Frankignoulle, M., de Wit, R., and Middelburg, J. J. (2000). “Transient, tidal timescale, nitrogen transformations in an estuarine turbidity maximum-fluid mud system (the Gironde, southwest France).” Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci., 50, 703–715.
Aller, R. C., Blair, N. E., Xia, Q., and Rude, P. D. (1996). “Remineralization rates, recycling, and storage of carbon in amazon shelf sediments.” Cont. Shelf Res., 16, 753–786.
Allersma, E., Hoekstra, A. J., and Bijker, E. W. (1966). “Transport patterns in the Chao Phya Estuary.” Proc. Conf. Coastal Eng., 10, 632–650.
Allison, M. A., Nittrouer, C. A., and Kineke, G. C. (1995). “Seasonal sediment storage on mudflats adjacent to the Amazon River.” Mar. Geol., 125, 303–328.
Bachmann, R. W., Hoyer, M. V., and Canfield, D. E. (2000). “Internal heterotrophy following the switch from macrophytes to algae in Lake Apopka, Fla.” Hydrobiologia, 418, 217–227.
Bagnold, R. A. (1962). “Autosuspension of transported sediments: Turbidity currents.” Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 265, 315–319.
Barnes, H. A., Hutton, J. F., and Walters, K. (1989). An Introduction to Rheology, Elsevier, New York.
Barnes, H. A., and Walters, K. (1985). “The yield stress myth?” Rheol. Acta, 24, 323–326.
Benjamin, T. B. (1968). “Gravity currents and related phenomena.” J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 2, 31, 209–248.
Berlamont, J. (1989). “Pumping fluid mud: theoretical and experimental considerations.” J. Coastal Res., 5, 195–205.
Cauwet, G., and Mackenzie, F. T. (1993). “Carbon inputs and distribution in estuaries of turbid rivers: The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers.” Mar. Chem., 43, 235–246.
Coussot, P., and Piau, J.-M. (1995). “The effects of an addition of force-free particles on the rheological properties of fine suspensions.” Can. Geotech. J., 32, 263–270.
CTH. (1971). Estuarine navigation projects, technical bulletin 17, Corps of Engineers Committee on Tidal Hydraulics, Vicksburg, Miss.
Dean, R. G., and Dalrymple, R. A. (1984). Water wave mechanics for engineers and scientists, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (Reprinted Scientific, Singapore.)
Doneker, R. L., Nash, J. D., and Jirka, G. H. (2004). “Pollutant transport and mixing zone simulation of sediment density currents.” J. Hydraul. Eng., 130(4), 349–359.
Einstein, H. A. (1941). “The viscosity of highly concentrated underflows and its influence on mixing.” Trans., Am. Geophys. Union, 3, 597–603.
Feng, J. (1992). “Laboratory experiments on cohesive soil bed fluidization by water waves.” MS thesis, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.
Foda, M. A., Tzang, S. Y., and Maeno, Y. (1991). “Resonant soil liquefaction by water waves.” Proc. of Geo-Coast ’91, Port and Harbor Research Institute, Yokohama, Japan.
Friedrichs, C. T., and Wright, L. D. (2004). “Gravity-driven sediment transport on the continental shelf: Implications for equilibrium profiles near river mouths.” Coastal Eng., 51, 795–811.
Friedman, G. M., and Sanders, J. E. (1978). “Gravity-driven sediment transport on the continental shelf: Implications for equilibrium profiles near river mouths.” Principles of sedimentology: New York, Wiley, New York, 792.
Gade, H. G. (1957). “Effects of a nonrigid impermeable bottom on plane surface waves in shallow water.” Ph.D. thesis, Texas A&M Univ., 35.
Granboulan, J., Feral, A., and Villerot, M. (1989). “Study of sedimentological and rheological properties of fluid mud in the fluvio-estuarine system of the Gironde estuary.” Ocean Shoreline Management, 12, 23–46.
Havens, K. E., James, R. T., East, T. L., and Smith, V. H. (2003). “N:P ratios, light limitation, and cyanobacterial dominance in a subtropical lake impacted by nonpoint source nutrient pollution.” Environ. Pollut., 122, 379–390.
Haydel, J. F., and McAnally, W. H. (2004). “Sediment resuspension by tows.” Proc., 83rd Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., P1960.
Hedges, J. I., and Keil, R. G. (1999). “Organic geochemical perspectives on estuarine processes: Sorption reactions and consequences.” Mar. Chem., 65, 55–65.
Hill, D. F., and Foda, M. A. (1999). “Effects on viscosity on the nonlinear resonance of internal waves.” J. Geophys. Res., 104(C5), 10951–10957.
Jamali, M., Lawrence, G. A., and Seymour, B. (2003). “A note on the resonant interaction between a surface wave and two interfacial waves.” J. Fluid Mech., 491, 1–9.
James, A. E., Williams, D. J. A., and Williams, P. R. (1987). “Direct measurement of static yield stress of cohesive suspensions.” Rheol. Acta, 26, 437–446.
Kato, H., and Phillips, O. M. (1969). “On the penetration of a turbulent layer into a stratified fluid.” J. Fluid Mech., 37, 643–655.
Kendrick, M. P., Derbyshire, B. V., and Stevenson, J. A. (1985). “Harbour siltation—Physical model and computational studies to establish present cause and predict post-development siltation rates,” Int. Conf. on Numerical and Hydraulic Modeling of Ports and Harbours, BHRA, Birmingham, U.K., 139–148.
Kineke, G. C., Sternberg, R. W., Trowbridge, J. H., and Geyer, W. R. (1996). “Fluid mud processes on the Amazon continental shelf.” Cont. Shelf Res., 16, 667–696.
Kineke, G. C., Woolfe, K. J., Kuehl, S. A., Milliman, J. D., Dellapenna, T. M., and Purdon, R. G. (2000). “Sediment export from the Sepik River, Paupua New Guinea: Evidence for a divergent sediment plume.” Cont. Shelf Res., 20, 2239–2266.
Kirby, R. (1986). “Suspended fine cohesive sediment in the Severn Estuary and inner Bristol Channel.” Rep. No. ESTU-STP-4042, Dept. of Atomic Energy, Harwell, U.K., 242.
Kirby, R., and Parker, W. R. (1977). “The physical characteristics and environmental significance fine sediment suspensions in estuaries.” Estuaries, Geophysics and the Environment, National Research Council, Academy, Washington, D.C., 110–120.
Krone, R. B. (1963). A Study of Rheologic Properties of Estuarial Sediments, SERL Rep. No. 63-8, Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory and Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Leithold, E. L., and Hope, R. S. (1999). “Deposition and modification of a flood layer on the northern California shelf: Lessons from and about the fate of terrestrial particulate organic carbon.” Mar. Geol., 154, 183–195.
Lowe, D. R. (1975). “Water escape structures in coarse-grained sediments.” Sedimentology, 46, 157–204.
Lowe, D. R. (1976). “Grain flow and grain flow deposits.” J. Sedimentary Petrology, 46, 188–199.
Mathew, J., Baba, M., and Kurian, N. P. (1995). “Mudbanks of the Southwest coast of India I: Wave characteristics.” J. Coastal Res., 11(1), 168–178.
McAnally, W. H. (2000). “Aggregation and deposition of fine sediment.” Technical Rep. No. ERDC/CHL TR-00-8, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Miss.
Mehta, A. J. (1991). “Understanding fluid mud in a dynamic environment.” Geo-Mar. Lett., 11, 113–118.
Mehta, A. J., and Li, Y. (1996). “Fine-grained sediment transport engineering.” Proc., Coastal and Oceanographic Engineering Dept. Course, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.
Mehta, A. J., and McAnally, W. H. (2002). “Fine-grained cohesive sediment transport.” Sedimentation engineering, ASCE manual 54, Chapter 4, Vol. 2, ASCE, New York.
Mehta, A., Lee, S-C., and Li, Y. (1994). “Fluid mud and water waves: a brief review of interactive processes and simple modeling approaches.” WES Contract Rep. No. DRP-94-4, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.
Migniot, P. C. (1968). “Étude de propriètes physiques de differents sediments tres fins et de leur comportement sous des actions hydrodynamiques.” La Houille Blanche, 7, 591–620.
Mitchell, J. K. (1961). “Fundamental aspects of thixotropy in soils.” Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 126(1), 1586–1626.
Mulder, T., and Syvitski, J. P. M. (1995). “Turbidity currents generated at river mouths during exceptional discharges to the world oceans.” J. Geol., 103, 285–299.
N’guyen, Q. D., and Boger, D. V. (1992). “Measuring the flow properties of yield stress fluids.” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 24, 47–88.
Nichols, May. M., and Thompson, G. S. (1978). “A field study of fluid mud dredged material: Its physical nature and dispersal.” Rep. No. D-78-40, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.
Ogston, A. S., Cacchione, D. A., Sternberg, R. W., and Kineke, G. C. (2000). “Observations of storm and river flood-driven sediment transport on the northern California continental shelf.” Cont. Shelf Res., 20, 2141–2162.
Parker, G., Fukushima, Y., and Pantin, H. M. (1986). “Self-accelerating turbidity currents.” J. Fluid Mech., 171, 145–181.
Parker, W. R., and Kirby, R. (1982). “Time dependent properties of cohesive sediment relevant to sedimentation management—European experience.” Estuarine Comparisons, V. S. Kennedy, ed., Academic, New York.
Parsons, J. D., et al. (2005). “Sediment gravity flows: Initiation, transport, and deposition.” Continental margin sedimentation: Transport to sequence, C. A. Nitrouer, J. Austin, M. Field, M. Steckler, J. P. M. Syvitski, and P. Wiberg, eds.
Paucot, H., and Wollast, R. (1997). “Transport and transformation of trace metals in the Scheldt Estuary.” Mar. Chem., 58, 229–244.
Pieters, A., Van Parys, M., Dumon, G., and Speleers, L. (2002). “Chemical monitoring of maintenance dredging operations at Zeebrugge.” Terra et Aqua, 86, 3–10.
Rodriguez, H. N., and Mehta, A. J. (1998). “Considerations on wave-induced fluid mud streaming at open coasts.” Sedimentary processes in the intertidal zone, K. S. Black, D. M. Paterson, and A. Cramp, eds., Geological Society, London, 177–186.
Rodriguez, H. N., and Mehta, A. J. (2001). “Modeling muddy coast response to waves.” J. Coastal Res., SI 27, 137–148.
Ross, M. A., and Mehta, A. J. (1988). “On the transport of high concentration suspensions.” Flocculation and dewatering, B. M. Moudgil and B. J. Scheiner, eds., Engineering Foundation, New York.
Ross, M. A., and Mehta, A. J. (1990). “Fluidization of soft estuarine mud by waves.” Microstructure of fine-grained sediments: From mud to shale, R. H. Bennet, ed., Springer, New York.
Schelske, C. L., and Kenney, W. F. (2001). “Model erroneously predicts failure for restoration of Lake Apopka, a hypereutrophic, subtropical lake.” Hydrobiologia, 448, 1–5.
Scully, M. E., Friedrichs, C. T., and Wright, L. D. (2002). “Application of an analytical model of critically stratified gravity-driven sediment transport and deposition to observations from the Eel River continental shelf, northern California.” Cont. Shelf Res., 22, 1951–1974.
Seyler, P., and Martin, J. M. (1990). “Distribution of arsenite and total dissolved arsenic in major French estuaries: Dependence on biogeochemical processed and anthropogenic inputs.” Mar. Chem., 29, 277–294.
SFWMD. (2004), “Indian river lagoon restoration feasibility study.” South Florida Water Management District, ⟨http://www.sfwmd.gov/org/wrp/wrp_ce/projects/muck.html⟩ (October 2004).
Sills, G. C., and Elder, D. M. (1986). “The transition from sediment suspension to settling bed.” Estuarine cohesive sediment dynamics, A. J. Mehta, ed., Springer, Berlin, 192–205.
Smith, T. J., and Kirby, R. (1989). “Generation, stabilization and dissipation of layered fine sediment suspensions.” J. Coastal Res., 5, 63–73.
Sterling, G. H., and Strohbeck, G. E. (1975). “Failure of south pass 70 platform B in hurricane Camille.” J. Pet. Technol., 27, 263–268.
Sternberg, R. W., Cacchione, D. A., Paulson, B., Kineke, G. C., and Drake, D. E. (1996). “Observations of sediment transport on the Amazon subaqueous delta.” Cont. Shelf Res., 16, 697–715.
Teeter, A. M. (1992). “The viscous characteristics of channel-bottom muds.” Technical Note DRP-2-04, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.
Teeter, A. M. (2001). “Fine-grained modeling using multiple grain classes: Part I. Cohesive sediment settling and deposition.” Coastal and estuarine fine sediment transport: Processes and applications, W. H. McAnally and A. J. Mehta, eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Teeter, A. M., Fagerburg, T., Waller, T., Benson, H., Brister, D., and McAdory, R. (2003). Factors affecting fluff and fluid mud accumulation in the atchafalaya bar channel, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Miss.
Toorman, E. A., and Berlamont, J. E. (1992). “Free surface flow of a dense, natural cohesive sediment.” Computational fluid dynamics ’92, Vol. 2, C. H. Hirsch, et al., eds., 1005–1011.
Tolhurst, T. J., Gust, G., and Patterson, D. M. (2002). “The influence of an extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) on cohesive sediment stability.” Fine sediment dynamics in the marine environment, J. C. Winterwerp and C. Kranenburg, eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 429–425.
Toorman, E. A. (1997). “Modeling the thixotropic behavior of dense cohesive sediment suspensions.” Rheol. Acta, 36, 56–65.
Traykovski, P., Wiberg, P. L., and Geyer, W. R. (2005). “Observations and modeling of wave-supported sediment gravity flows on the Po prodelta and comparison to prior observations from the Eel shelf.” Cont. Shelf Res.
Trowbridge, J. H., and Kineke, G. C. (1994). “Structure and dynamics of fluid muds on the Amazon continental shelf.” J. Geophys. Res., 99, 865–874.
Tubman, M. W., and Suhayda, J. N. (1976). “Wave action and bottom movements in fine sediments.” Proc., 15th Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE, New York, 1168–1183.
Van Kessel, T., and Blom, C. (1998). “Rheology of cohesive sediments: Comparison between a natural and artificial mud.” J. Hydraul. Res., 36(4), 591–612.
Van Kessel, T., Kranenburg, C., and Battjes, J. A. (1996). “Transport of fluid mud generated by waves on inclined beds.” Coastal Eng., 1996, 3337–3348.
Walsh, J. P., and Nittrouer, C. A. (2003). “Contrasting styles of offshelf sediment accumulation in New Guinea.” Mar. Geol., 196, 105–125.
Wheatcroft, R. A., and Borgeld, J. C. (2000). “Oceanic flood deposits on the northern California shelf: Large-scale distribution and small-scale physical properties.” Cont. Shelf Res., 20, 2163–2190.
William, D. (1980). “Rheology of cohesive suspensions.” Estuarine cohesive sediment dynamics, A. Mehta, ed., lecture notes on coastal and estuarine studies, Springer, New York, 110–125.
Wright, L. D., et al. (1988). “Marine dispersal and deposition of Yellow River silts by gravity-driven undertows.” Nature (London), 332, 429–432.
Wright, L. D., Friedrichs, C. T., Kim, S. C., and Scully, M. E. (2001). “The effects of ambient currents and waves on gravity-driven sediment transport on continental shelves.” Mar. Geol., 175, 25–45.
Wright, V. G., and Krone, R. B. (1989). “Aggregate structure in hyperconcentrated mud flows.” J. Coastal Res., 5, 117–125.
Zabawa, C. F. (1978). “Flocculation in the turbidity maximum of Northern Chesapeake Bay.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of South Carolina, Columbia.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
Volume 133 • Issue 1 • January 2007
Pages: 9 - 22
Copyright
© 2007 ASCE.
History
Received: Mar 11, 2005
Accepted: Jul 11, 2005
Published online: Jan 1, 2007
Published in print: Jan 2007
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.